GOTTLING

gottling, carl wilhelm (1793-1869), german classical scholar, was born at jena on the 19th of january 1793. he studied at the universities of jena and berlin, took part in the war against france in 1814, and finally settled down in 1822 as professor at the university of his native town, where he continued to reside till his death on the 20th of january 1869. in his early years gottling devoted himself to german literature, and published two works on the nibelungen: _uber das geschichtliche im nibelungenliede_ (1814) and _nibelungen und gibelinen_ (1817). the greater part of his life, however, was devoted to the study of classical literature, especially the elucidation of greek authors. the contents of his _gesammelte abhandlungen aus dem klassischen altertum_ (1851-1863) and _opuscula academica_ (published in 1869 after his death) sufficiently indicate the varied nature of his studies. he edited the [greek: techne] (grammatical manual) of theodosius of alexandria (1822), aristotle's _politics_ (1824), and _economics_ (1830) and hesiod (1831; 3rd ed. by j. flach, 1878). mention may also be made of his _allgemeine lehre vom accent der griechischen sprache_ (1835), enlarged from a smaller work, which was translated into english (1831) as the _elements of greek accentuation_; and of his _correspondence with goethe_ (published 1880). see memoirs by c. nipperdey, his colleague at jena (1869), g. lothholz (stargard, 1876), k. fischer (preface to the _opuscula academica_), and c. bursian in _allgemeine deutsche biographie_, ix. gottschalk [godescalus, gottescale], (c. 808-867?), german theologian, was born near mainz, and was devoted (_oblatus_) from infancy by his parents,--his father was a saxon, count bern,--to the monastic life. he was trained at the monastery of fulda, then under the abbot hrabanus maurus, and became the friend of walafrid strabo and loup of ferrieres. in june 829, at the synod of mainz, on the pretext that he had been unduly constrained by his abbot, he sought and obtained his liberty, withdrew first to corbie, where he met ratramnus, and then to the monastery of orbais in the diocese of soissons. there he studied st augustine, with the result that he became an enthusiastic believer in the doctrine of absolute predestination, in one point going beyond his master--gottschalk believing in a predestination to condemnation as well as in a predestination to salvation, while augustine had contented himself with the doctrine of preterition as complementary to the doctrine of election. between 835 and 840 gottschalk was ordained priest, without the knowledge of his bishop, by rigbold, _chorepiscopus_ of reims. before 840, deserting his monastery, he went to italy, preached there his doctrine of double predestination, and entered into relations with notting, bishop of verona, and eberhard, count of friuli. driven from italy through the influence of hrabanus maurus, now archbishop of mainz, who wrote two violent letters to notting and eberhard, he travelled through dalmatia, pannonia and norica, but continued preaching and writing. in october 848 he presented to the synod at mainz a profession of faith and a refutation of the ideas expressed by hrabanus maurus in his letter to notting. he was convicted, however, of heresy, beaten, obliged to swear that he would never again enter the territory of louis the german, and handed over to hincmar, archbishop of reims, who sent him back to his monastery at orbais. the next year at a provincial council at quierzy, presided over by charles the bald, he attempted to justify his ideas, but was again condemned as a heretic and disturber of the public peace, was degraded from the priesthood, whipped, obliged to burn his declaration of faith, and shut up in the monastery of hautvilliers. there hincmar tried again to induce him to retract. gottschalk however continued to defend his doctrine, writing to his friends and to the most eminent theologians of france and germany. a great controversy resulted. prudentius, bishop of troyes, wenilo of sens, ratramnus of corbie, loup of ferrieres and florus of lyons wrote in his favour. hincmar wrote _de praedestinatione_ and _de una non trina deitate_ against his views, but gained little aid from johannes scotus erigena, whom he had called in as an authority. the question was discussed at the councils of kiersy (853), of valence (855) and of savonnieres (859). finally the pope nicolas i. took up the case, and summoned hincmar to the council of metz (863). hincmar either could not or would not appear, but declared that gottschalk might go to defend himself before the pope. nothing came of this, however, and when hincmar learned that gottschalk had fallen ill, he forbade him the sacraments or burial in consecrated ground unless he would recant. this gottschalk refused to do. he died on the 30th of october between 866 and 870. gottschalk was a vigorous and original thinker, but also of a violent temperament, incapable of discipline or moderation in his ideas as in his conduct. he was less an innovator than a reactionary. of his many works we have only the two professions of faith (cf. migne, _patrologia latina_, cxxi. c. 347 et seq.), and some poems, edited by l. traube in _monumenta germaniae historica: poetae latini aevi carolini_ (t. iii. 707-738). some fragments of his theological treatises have been preserved in the writings of hincmar, erigena, ratramnus and loup of ferrieres. from the 17th century, when the jansenists exalted gottschalk, much has been written on him. mention may be made of two recent studies, f. picavet, "les discussions sur la liberte au temps de gottschalk, de raban maur, d'hincmar, et de jean scot," in _comptes rendus de l'acad. des sciences morales et politiques_ (paris, 1896); and a. freystedt, "studien zu gottschalks leben und lehre," in _zeitschrift fur kirchengeschichte_ (1897), vol. xviii.