GARLAND

garland, john (fl. 1202-1252), latin grammarian, known as johannes garlandius, or, more commonly, johannes de garlandia, was born in england, though most of his life was spent in france. john bale in his _catalogus_, and john pits, following bale, placed him among the writers of the 11th century. the main facts of his life, however, are stated in a long poem _de triumphis ecclesiae_ contained in cotton ms. claudius a x in the british museum, and edited by thomas wright for the roxburghe club in 1856. garland narrates the history of his time from the point of view of the victories gained by the church over heretics at home and infidels abroad. he studied at oxford under a certain john of london, whom it is difficult to distinguish from others of the same name; but he must have been in paris in or before 1202, for he mentions as one of his teachers alain de lisle, who died in that year or the next. garland was one of the professors chosen in 1229 for the new university of toulouse, and remained in the south during the albigensian crusade, of which he gives a detailed account in books iv.-vi. in 1232 or 1233 the hatred of the people made further residence in toulouse unsafe for the professors of the university, who had been installed by the catholic party. garland was one of the first to fly, and the rest of his life was spent in paris, where he finished his poem in 1252. garland's grammatical works were much used in england, and were often printed by richard pynson and wynkyn de worde. he was also a voluminous latin poet. works on mathematics and music have also been assigned to him, but the ascription may have arisen from confusion of his works with those of gerlandus, a canon of besancon in the 12th century. the treatise on alchemy, _compendium alchimiae_, often printed under his name, was by a 14th-century writer named martin ortolan, or lortholain. the best known of his poems beside the "de triumphis ecclesiae" is "epithalamium beatae mariae virginis," contained in the same ms. among his other works are his "dictionarius," a latin vocabulary, printed by t. wright in the _library of national antiquities_ (vol. i., 1857); _compendium totius grammatices ..._, printed at deventer, 1489; two metrical treatises, entitled _synonyma_ and _equivoca_, frequently printed at the close of the 15th century. for further bibliographical information see the british museum catalogue; j.a. fabricius, _bibliotheca latina mediae et infimae aetatis ..._, vol. iii. (1754); g. brunet, _manuel du libraire, &c._ see also _histoire litt. de la france_, vols. viii., xxi., xxiii. and xxx.; the prefaces to the editions by t. wright mentioned above; p. meyer, _la chanson de la croisade contre les albigeois_, vol. ii. pp. xxi-xxiii. (paris, 1875); dr a. scheler, _lexicographie latine du xii^e et du xiii^e siecles_ (leipzig, 1867); the article by c.l. kingsford in the _dict. nat. biog._, giving a list also of the works on alchemy, mathematics and music, rightly or wrongly ascribed to him; j.e. sandys, _hist. of class. schol._ i. (1906) 549. (e. g.) garlic (o. eng. _garleac_, i.e. "spear-leek"; gr. [greek: skorodon]; lat. _allium_; ital. _aglio_; fr. _ail_; ger. _knoblauch_), _allium sativum_, a bulbous perennial plant of the natural order liliaceae, indigenous apparently to south-west siberia. it has long, narrow, flat, obscurely keeled leaves, a deciduous spathe, and a globose umbel of whitish flowers, among which are small bulbils. the bulb, which is the only part eaten, has membranous scales, in the axils of which are 10 or 12 cloves, or smaller bulbs. from these new bulbs can be procured by planting out in february or march. the bulbs are best preserved hung in a dry place. if of fair size, twenty of them weigh about 1 lb. to prevent the plant from running to leaf, pliny (_nat. hist._ xix. 34) advises to bend the stalk downward and cover with earth; seeding, he observes, may be prevented by twisting the stalk. garlic is cultivated in the same manner as the shallot (q.v.). it is stated to have been grown in england before the year 1548. the percentage composition of the bulbs is given by e. solly (_trans. hort. soc. lond._, new ser., iii. p. 60) as water 84.09, organic matter 13.38, and inorganic matter 1.53--that of the leaves being water 87.14, organic matter 11.27 and inorganic matter 1.59. the bulb has a strong and characteristic odour and an acrid taste, and yields an offensively smelling oil, essence of garlic, identical with allyl sulphide (c3h5)2s (see hofmann and cahours, _journ. chem. soc._ x. p. 320). this, when garlic has been eaten, is evolved by the excretory organs, the activity of which it promotes. from the earliest times garlic has been used as an article of diet. it formed part of the food of the israelites in egypt (numb. xi. 5) and of the labourers employed by cheops in the construction of his pyramid, and is still grown in egypt, where, however, the syrian is the kind most esteemed (see rawlinson's _herodotus_, ii. 125). it was largely consumed by the ancient greek and roman soldiers, sailors and rural classes (cf. virg. _ecl_. ii. 11), and, as pliny tells us (_n.h._ xix. 32), by the african peasantry. galen eulogizes it as the rustic's _theriac_ (see f. adams's _paulus aegineta_, p. 99), and alexander neckam, a writer of the 12th century (see wright's edition of his works, p. 473, 1863), recommends it as a palliative of the heat of the sun in field labour. "the people in places where the simoon is frequent," says mountstuart elphinstone (_an account of the kingdom of caubul_, p. 140, 1815), "eat garlic, and rub their lips and noses with it, when they go out in the heat of the summer, to prevent their suffering by the simoon." "o dura messorum ilia," exclaims horace (_epod_. iii.), as he records his detestation of the popular esculent, to smell of which was accounted a sign of vulgarity (cf. shakespeare, _coriol_. iv. 6, and _meas. for meas._ iii. 2). in england garlic is seldom used except as a seasoning, but in the southern countries of europe it is a common ingredient in dishes, and is largely consumed by the agricultural population. garlic was placed by the ancient greeks on the piles of stones at cross-roads, as a supper for hecate (theophrastus, _characters_, [greek: deisidaimonias]); and according to pliny garlic and onions were invocated as deities by the egyptians at the taking of oaths. the inhabitants of pelusium in lower egypt, who worshipped the onion, are said to have held both it and garlic in aversion as food. garlic possesses stimulant and stomachic properties, and was of old, as still sometimes now, employed as a medicinal remedy. pliny (_n.h._ xx. 23) gives an exceedingly long list of complaints in which it was considered beneficial. dr t. sydenham valued it as an application in confluent smallpox, and, says cullen (_mat. med._ ii. p. 174, 1789), found some dropsies cured by it alone. in the united states the bulb is given in doses of 1/2-2 drachms in cases of bronchiectasis and phthisis pulmonalis. garlic may also be prescribed as an extract consisting of the inspissated juice, in doses of 5-10 grains, and as the _syrupus allii aceticus_, in doses of 1-4 drachms. this last preparation has recently been much extolled in the treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis or phthisis. the wild "crow garlic" and "field garlic" of britain are the species _allium vineale_ and _a. oleraceum_ respectively.