GALLOWAY

galloway, a district in the south-west of scotland, comprising the counties of kirkcudbright and wigtown. it was the _novantia_ of the romans, and till the end of the 12th century included carrick, now the southern division of ayrshire. though the designation has not been adopted civilly, its use historically and locally has been long established. thus the bruces were lords of galloway, and the title of earl of galloway (created 1623) is now held by a branch of the stewarts. galloway also gives its name to a famous indigenous breed of black hornless cattle. see kirkcudbrightshire and wigtownshire. gallows[1] (a common teutonic word--cf. goth. _galga_, o.h. ger. _galgo_, mod. ger. _galgen_, a.s. _galzan_, &c.--of uncertain origin), the apparatus for executing the sentence of death by hanging. it usually consists of two upright posts and a cross-beam, but sometimes of a single upright with a beam projecting from the top. the roman gallows was the cross, and in the older translations of the bible "gallows" was used for the cross on which christ suffered (so _galga_ in ulfilas's gothic testament).[2] another form of gallows in the middle ages was that of which the famous example at montfaucon near paris was the type. this was a square structure formed of columns of masonry connected in each tier with cross-pieces of wood, and with pits beneath, into which the bodies fell after disarticulation by exposure to the weather. according to actual usage the condemned man stands on a platform or drop (introduced in england in 1760), the rope hangs from the cross-beam, and the noose at its end is placed round his neck. he is hanged by the falling of the drop, the knot in the noose being so adjusted that the spinal cord is broken by the fall and death instantaneous. in old times the process was far less merciful; sometimes the condemned man stood in a cart, which was drawn away from under him; sometimes he had to mount a ladder, from which he was thrust by the hangman. until 1832 malefactors in england were sometimes hanged by being drawn up from the platform by a heavy weight at the other end of the rope. death in these cases was by strangulation. at the present time executions in the united kingdom are private, the gallows being erected in a chamber or enclosed space set apart for the purpose inside the gaol. the word "gibbet," the fr. _gibet_, gallows, which appears in the first instance to have meant a crooked stick,[3] was originally used in english synonymously with gallows, as it sometimes still is. its later and more special application, however, was to the upright posts with a projecting arm on which the bodies of criminals were suspended after their execution. these gibbets were erected in conspicuous spots, on the tops of hills (gallows hill is still a common name) or near frequented roads. the bodies, smeared with pitch to prevent too rapid decomposition, hung in chains as a warning to evildoers. from the gruesome custom comes the common use of the word "to gibbet" for any holding up to public infamy or contempt. footnotes: [1] the word "gallows" is the plural of a word (_galwe_, _galowe_, _gallow_) which, according to the _new english dictionary_, was occasionally used as late as the 17th century, though from the 13th century onwards the plural form was more usual. caxton speaks both of "a gallows," and, in the older form, of "a pair of gallows," this referring probably to the two upright posts. from the 16th century onwards "gallows" has been consistently treated as a singular form, a new plural, "gallowses," having come into use. "the latter, though not strictly obsolete, is now seldom used; the formation is felt to be somewhat uncouth, so that the use of the word in the plural in commonly evaded" (_new eng. dict._ s.v. "gallows"). [2] in med. lat. "gallows" was translated by _furia_ and _patibulum_, both words applied in classical latin to a fork-shaped instrument of punishment fastened on the neck of slaves and criminals. _furia_, in feudal law, was the right granted to tenants having major jurisdiction to erect a gallows within the limits of their fief. [3] cf. wace, _roman de rou_, iii. 8349: "et il a le gibet saisi qui a son destre braz pendi." galls. in animals galls occur mostly on or under the skin of living mammals and birds, and are produced by acaridea, and by dipterous insects of the genus _oestrus_. signor moriggia[1] has described and figured a horny excrescence, nearly 8 in. in length, from the back of the human hand, which was caused by _acarus domesticus_. what are commonly known as galls are vegetable excrescences, and, according to the definition of lacaze-duthiers, comprise "all abnormal vegetable productions developed on plants by the action of animals, more particularly by insects, whatever may be their form, bulk or situation." for the larvae of their makers the galls provide shelter and sustenance. the exciting cause of the hypertrophy, in the case of the typical galls, appears to be a minute quantity of some irritating fluid, or virus, secreted by the female insect, and deposited with her egg in the puncture made by her ovipositor in the cortical or foliaceous parts of plants. this virus causes the rapid enlargement and subdivision of the cells affected by it, so as to form the tissues of the gall. oval or larval irritation also, without doubt, plays an important part in the formation of many galls. though, as lacaze-duthiers remarks, a certain relation is necessary between the "stimulus" and the "supporter of the stimulus," as evidenced by the limitation in the majority of cases of each species of gall-insect to some one vegetable structure, still it must be the quality of the irritant of the tissues, rather than the specific peculiarities or the part of the plant affected, that principally determines the nature of the gall. thus the characteristics of the currant-gall of _spathegaster baccarum_, l., which occurs alike on the leaves and on the flower-stalks of the oak, are obviously due to the act of oviposition, and not to the functions of the parts producing it; the bright red galls of the saw-fly _nematus gallicola_ are found on four different species of willow, _salix fragilis_, _s. alba_, _s. caprea_ and _s. cinerea_;[2] and the galls of a cynipid, _biorhiza aptera_, usually developed on the rootlets of the oak, have been procured also from the deodar.[3] often the gall bears no visible resemblance to the structures out of which it is developed; commonly, however, outside the larval chamber, or gall proper, and giving to the gall its distinctive form, are to be detected certain more or less modified special organs of the plant. the gall of _cecidomyia strobilina_, formed from willow-buds, is mainly a rosette of leaves the stalks of which have had their growth arrested. the small, smooth, seed-shaped gall of the american _cynips seminator_, harris, according to w.f. bassett,[4] is the petiole, and its terminal tuft of woolly hairs the enormously developed pubescence of the young oak-leaf. the moss-like covering of the "bedeguars" of the wild rose, the galls of a cynipid, _rhodites rosae_, represents leaves which have been developed with scarcely any parenchyma between their fibro-vascular bundles; and the "artichoke-galls" or "oak-strobile," produced by _aphilothrix gemmae_, l., which insect arrests the development of the acorn, consists of a cupule to which more or less modified leaf-scales are attached, with a peduncular, oviform, inner gall.[5] e. newman held the view that many oak-galls are pseudobalani or false acorns: "to produce an acorn has been the intention of the oak, but the gall-fly has frustrated the attempt." their formation from buds which normally would have yielded leaves and shoots is explained by parfitt as the outcome of an effort at fructification induced by oviposition, such as has been found to result in several plants from injury by insect-agency or otherwise.[6] galls vary remarkably in size and shape according to the species of their makers. the polythalamous gall of _aphilothrix radicis_, found on the roots of old oak-trees, may attain the size of a man's fist; the galls of another cynipid, _andricus occultus_, tschek,[7] which occurs on the male flowers of _quercus sessiliflora_, is 2 millimetres, or barely a line, in length. many galls are brightly coloured, as, for instance, the oak-leaf hairy galls of _spathegaster tricolor_, which are of a crimson hue, more or less diffused according to exposure to light. the variety of forms of galls is very great. some are like urns or cups, others lenticular. the "knoppern" galls of _cynips polycera_, gir., are cones having the broad, slightly convex upper surface surrounded with a toothed ridge. of the ceylonese galls, "some are as symmetrical as a composite flower when in bud, others smooth and spherical like a berry; some protected by long spines, others clothed with yellow wool formed of long cellular hairs, others with regularly tufted hairs."[8] the characters of galls are constant, and as a rule exceedingly diagnostic, even when, as in the case of ten different gall-gnats of an american willow, _salix humilis_, it is difficult or impossible to tell the full-grown insects that produce them from one another. in degree of complexity of internal structure galls differ considerably. some are monothalamous, and contain but one larva of the gall-maker, whilst others are many-celled and numerously inhabited. the largest class are the unilocular, or simple, external galls, divided by lacaze-duthiers into those with and those without a superficial protective layer or rind, and composed of hard, or spongy, or cellular tissue. in a common gall-nut that authority distinguished seven constituent portions: an epidermis; a subdermic cellular tissue; a spongy and a hard layer, composing the parenchyma proper; vessels which, without forming a complete investment, underlie the parenchyma; a hard protective layer; and lastly, within that, an alimentary central mass inhabited by the growing larva.[9] galls are formed by insects of several orders. among the hymenoptera are the gall-wasps (_cynips_ and its allies), which infect the various species of oak. they are small insects, having straight antennae, and a compressed, usually very short abdomen with the second or second and third segments greatly developed, and the rest imbricated, and concealing the partially coiled ovipositor. the transformations from the larval state are completed within the gall, out of which the imago, or perfect insect, tunnels its way,--usually in autumn, though sometimes, as has been observed of some individuals of _cynips kollari_, after hibernation. among the commoner of the galls of the _cynipidae_ are the "oak-apple" or "oak-sponge" of _andricus terminalis_, fab.; the "currant" or "berry galls" of _spathegaster baccarum_, l., above mentioned; and the "oak-spangles" of _neuroterus lenticularis_,[10] oliv., generally reputed to be fungoid growths, until the discovery of their true nature by frederick smith,[11] and the succulent "cherry-galls" of _dryophanta scutellaris_, oliv. the "marble" or "devonshire woody galls" of oak-buds, which often destroy the leading shoots of young trees, are produced by _cynips kollari_,[12] already alluded to. they were first introduced into devonshire about the year 1847, had become common near birmingham by 1866, and two or three years later were observed in several parts of scotland.[13] they contain about 17% of tannin.[14] on account of their regular form they have been used, threaded on wire, for making ornamental baskets. the large purplish mecca or bussorah galls,[15] produced on a species of oak by _cynips insana_, westw., have been regarded by many writers as the dead sea fruit, mad-apples (_mala insana_), or apples of sodom (_poma sodomitica_), alluded to by josephus and others, which, however, are stated by e. robinson (_bibl. researches in palestine_, vol. i. pp. 522-524, 3rd ed., 1867) to be the singular fruit called by the arabs _'osher_, produced by the _asclepias gigantea_ or _procera_ of botanists. what in california are known as "flea seeds" are oak-galls made by a species of _cynips_; in august they become detached from the leaves that bear them, and are caused to jump by the spasmodic movements of the grub within the thin-walled gall-cavity.[16] common gall-nuts, nut-galls, or oak-galls, the aleppo, turkey, or levant galls of commerce (ger. _gallapfel_, _levantische gallen_; fr. _noix de galle_), are produced on _quercus infectoria_, a variety of _q. lusitanica_, webb, by _cynips_ (_diplolepis_, latr.) _tinctoria_, l., or _c. gallae tinctoriae_ oliv. aleppo galls (_gallae halepenses_) are brittle, hard, spherical bodies, 2/5-4/5 in. in diameter, ridged and warty on the upper half, and light brown to dark greyish-yellow within. what are termed "blue," "black," or "green" galls contain the insect; the inferior "white" galls, which are lighter coloured, and not so compact, heavy or astringent, are gathered after its escape (see fig. 1.). less valued are the galls of tripoli (taraplus or tarabulus, whence the name "tarablous galls"). the most esteemed syrian galls, according to pereira, are those of mosul on the tigris. other varieties of nut-galls, besides the above-mentioned, are employed in europe for various purposes. commercial gall-nuts have yielded on analysis from 26 (h. davy) to 77 (buchner) % of tannin (see vinen, _loc. cit._), with gallic and ellagic acids, ligneous fibre, water, and minute quantities of proteids, chlorophyll, resin, free sugar and, in the cells around the inner shelly chamber, calcium oxalate. oak-galls are mentioned by theophrastus, dioscorides (i. 146), and other ancient writers, including pliny (_nat. hist._ xvi. 9, 10, xxiv. 5), according to whom they may be produced "in a single night." their insect origin appears to have been entirely unsuspected until within comparatively recent times, though pliny, indeed, makes the observation that a kind of gnat is produced in certain excrescences on oak leaves. bacon describes oak-apples as "an exudation of plants joined with putrefaction." pomet[17] thought that gall-nuts were the fruit of the oak, and a similar opinion obtains among the modern chinese, who apply to them the term _mu-shih-tsze_, or "fruits for the foodless."[18] hippocrates administered gall-nuts for their astringent properties, and pliny (_nat. hist._ xxiv. 5) recommends them as a remedy in affections of the gums and uvula, ulcerations of the mouth and some dozen more complaints. in british pharmacy gall-nuts are used in the preparation of the two astringent ointments _unguentum gallae_ and _unguentum gallae cum opio_, and of the tinctura gallae, and also as a source of tannin and of gallic acid (q.v.). they have from very early times been resorted to as a means of staining the hair of a dark colour, and they are the base of the tattooing dye of the somali women.[19] [illustration: fig. 1.--_a_, aleppo "blue" gall; _b_, ditto in section, showing central cavity for grub; _c_, aleppo "white" gall, perforated by insect; _d_, the same in section (natural size).] the gall-making hymenoptera include, besides the _cynipidae_ proper, certain species of the genus _eurytoma_ (_isosoma_, walsh) and family _chalcididae_, e.g. _e. hordei_, the "joint-worm" of the united states, which produces galls on the stalks of wheat;[20] also various members of the family _tenthredinidae_, or saw-flies. the larvae of the latter usually vacate their galls, to spin their cocoons in the earth, or, as in the case of _athalia abdominalis_, klg., of the clematis, may emerge from their shelter to feed for some days on the leaves of the gall-bearing plant. the dipterous gall-formers include the gall-midges, or gall-gnats (_cecidomyidae_), minute slender-bodied insects, with bodies usually covered with long hairs, and the wings folded over the back. some of them build cocoons within their galls, others descend to the ground or become pupae. the true willow-galls are the work either of these or of saw-flies. their galls are to be met with on a great variety of plants of widely distinct genera, e.g. the ash, maple, horn-beam, oak,[21] grape-vine,[22] alder, gooseberry, blackberry, pine, juniper, thistle, fennel, meadowsweet,[23] common cabbage and cereals. in the northern united states, in may, "legions of these delicate minute flies fill the air at twilight, hovering over wheat-fields and shrubbery. a strong north-west wind, at such times, is of incalculable value to the farmer."[24] other gall-making dipterous flies are members of the family _trypetidae_, which disfigure the seed-heads of plants, and of the family _mycetophilidae_, such as the species _sciara tilicola_,[25] low, the cause of the oblong or rounded green and red galls of the young shoots and leaves of the lime. galls are formed also by hemipterous and homopterous insects of the families _tingidae_, _psyllidae_, _coccidae_ and _aphidae_. _coccus pinicorticis_ causes the growth of patches of white flocculent and downy matter on the smooth bark of young trees of the white pine in america.[26] the galls of examples of the last family are common objects on lime-leaves, and on the petioles of the poplar. an american aphid of the genus _pemphigus_ produces black, ragged, leathery and cut-shaped excrescences on the young branches of the hickory. the chinese galls of commerce (_woo-pei-tsze_) are stated to be produced by _aphis chinensis_, bell, on _rhus semialata_, murr. (_r. bucki-amela_, roxb.), an anacardiaceous tree indigenous to n. india, china and japan. they are hollow, brittle, irregularly pyriform, tuberculated or branched vesicles, with thin walls, covered externally with a grey down, and internally with a white chalk-like matter, and insect-remains (see fig. 2). the escape of the insect takes place on the spontaneous bursting of the walls of the vesicle, probably when, after viviparous (thelytokous) reproduction for several generations, male winged insects are developed. the galls are gathered before the frosts set in, and are exposed to steam to kill the insects.[27] chinese galls examined by viedt[28] yielded 72% of tannin, and less mucilage than aleppo galls. several other varieties of galls are produced by aphides on species of _pistacia_. m.j. lichtenstein has established the fact that from the egg of the aphis of pistachio galls, _anopleura lentisci_, is hatched an apterous insect (the gall-founder), which gives birth to young aphides (emigrants), and that these, having acquired wings, fly to the roots of certain grasses (_bromus sterilis_ and _hordeum vulgare_), and by budding underground give rise to several generations of apterous insects, whence finally comes a winged brood (the pupifera). these last issuing from the ground fly to the pistachio, and on it deposit their pupae. from the pupae, again, are developed sexual individuals, the females of which lay fecundated eggs productive of gall-founders, thus recommencing the biological cycle (see _compt. rend._, nov. 18, 1878, p. 782, quoted in _ann. and mag. nat. hist._, 1879, p. 174). [illustration: fig. 2.--_a_, chinese gall (abt. 1/2 natural size); _b_, ditto broken, showing thin-walled cavity; _c_, japanese gall (natural size).] of other insects which have been recognized as gall-makers there are, among the coleoptera, certain curculionids (gall-weevils), and species of the exotic _sagridae_ and _lamiadae_ and an american beetle, _saperda inornata_ (_cerambycidae_), which forms the pseudo-galls of _salix longifolia_ and _populus angulata_, or cottonwood. among the lepidoptera are gall-forming species belonging to the _tineidae_, _aegeriidae_, _tortricidae_ and _pterophoridae_. the larva of a new zealand moth, _morova subfasciata_, walk. (_cacoecia gallicolens_), of the family _drepanulidae_, causes the stem of a creeping plant, on the pith of which it apparently subsists, to swell up into a fusiform gall.[29] mite-galls, or _acarocecidia_, are abnormal growths of the leaves of plants, produced by microscopic acaridea of the genus _phytoptus_ (gall-mites), and consist of little tufts of hairs, or of thickened portions of the leaves, usually most hypertrophied on the upper surface, so that the lower is drawn up into the interior, producing a bursiform cavity. mite-galls occur on the sycamore, pear, plum, ash, alder, vine, mulberry and many other plants; and formerly, e.g. the gall known as _erineum quercinum_, on the leaves of _quercus cerris_, were taken for cryptogamic structures. the lime-leaf "nail-galls" of _phytoptus tiliae_ closely resemble the "trumpet-galls" formed on american vines by a species of _cecidomyia_.[30] certain minute nematoid worms, as _anguillula scandens_, which infests the ears of wheat, also give rise to galls. besides the larva of the gall-maker, or the householder, galls usually contain inquilines or lodgers, the larvae of what are termed guest-flies or cuckoo-flies. thus the galls of _cynips_ and its allies are inhabited by members of other cynipideous genera, as _synergus_, _amblynotus_ and _synophrus_; and the pine-cone-like gall of _salix strobiloides_, as walsh has shown,[30] is made by a large species of _cecidomyia_, which inhabits the heart of the mass, the numerous smaller cecidomyidous larvae in its outer part being mere inquilines. in many instances the lodgers are not of the same order of insects as the gall-makers. some saw-flies, for example, are inquilinous in the galls of gall-gnats and some gall-gnats in the galls of saw-flies. again, galls may afford harbour to insects which are not essentially gall-feeders, as in the case of the curculio beetle _conotrachelius nenuphar_, hbst., of which one brood eats the fleshy part of the plum and peach, and another lives in the "black knot" of the plum-tree, regarded by walsh as probably a true cecidomyidous gall. the same authority (_loc. cit._ p. 550) mentions a willow-gall which provides no less than sixteen insects with food and protection; these are preyed upon by about eight others, so that altogether some twenty-four insects, representing eight orders, are dependent for their existence on what to the common observer appears to be nothing but "an unmeaning mass of leaves." among the numerous insects parasitic on the inhabitants of galls are hymenopterous flies of the family _proctotrypidae_, and of the family _chalcididae_, e.g. _callimome regius_, the larva of which preys on the larvae of both _cynips glutinosa_ and its lodger _synergus facialis_. the oak-apple often contains the larvae of _braconidae_ and _ichneumonidae_, which von schlechtendal (_loc. sup. cit._ p. 33) considers to be parasites not on the owner of the gall, _andricus terminalis_, but on inquilinous _tortricidae_. birds are to be included among the enemies of gall-insects. oak-galls, for example, are broken open by the titmouse in order to obtain the grub within, and the "button-galls" of _neuroterus numismatis_, oliv., are eaten by pheasants. a great variety of deformations and growths produced by insects and mites as well as by fungi have been described. they are in some cases very slight, and in others form remarkably large and definite structures. the whole are now included under the term cecidia; a prefix gives the name of the organism to which the attacks are due, e.g. phytoptocecidia are the galls formed by phytoptid mites. simple galls are those that arise when only one member of a plant is involved; compound galls are the result of attacks on buds. amongst the most remarkable galls recently discovered we may mention those found on eucalyptus, casuarina and other trees and plants in australia. they are remarkable for their variety, and are due to small scale-insects of the peculiar sub-family brachyscelinae. as regards the mode of production of galls, the most important distinction is between galls that result from the introduction of an egg, or other matter, into the interior of the plant, and those that are due to an agent acting externally, the gall in the latter case frequently growing in such a manner as ultimately to enclose its producers. the form and nature of the gall are the result of the powers of growth possessed by the plant. it has long been known, and is now generally recognized, that a gall can only be produced when the tissue of a plant is interfered with during, or prior to, the actual development of the tissue. little more than this is known. the power that gall-producers possess of influencing by direct interference the growth of the cells of the plant that affords them the means of subsistence is an art that appears to be widely spread among animals, but is at the same time one of which we have little knowledge. the views of adler as to the alternation of generations of numerous gall-flies have been fully confirmed, it having been ascertained by direct observation that the galls and the insects produced from them in one generation are entirely different from the next generation; and it has also been rendered certain that frequently one of the alternate generations is parthenogenetic, no males being produced. it is supposed that these remarkable phenomena have gradually been evoked by difference in the nutrition of the alternating generations. when two different generations are produced in one year on the same kind of tree it is clear the properties of the sap and tissues of the tree must be diverse so that the two generations are adapted to different conditions. in some cases the alternating generations are produced on different species of trees, and even on different parts of the two species. on galls and their makers and inhabitants see further--j.t.c. ratzeburg, _die forst-insecten_, teil iii. pp. 53 seq. (berlin, 1844); t.w. harris, _insects injurious to vegetation_ (boston, u.s., 2nd ed., 1852); c.l. koch, _die pflanzenlause aphiden_ (nuremberg, 1854); t. hartig, _die familien der blattwespen und holzwespen_ (berlin, 1860); walsh, "on the insects, coleopterous, hymenopterous and dipterous, inhabiting the galls of certain species of willow," _proc. ent. soc. philadelphia_, iii. (1863-1864), pp. 543-644, and vi. (1866-1867), pp. 223-288; t.a. marshall, "on some british cynipidae," _ent. month. mag._ iv. pp. 6-8, &c.; h.w. kidd and albert muller, "a list of gall-bearing british plants," _ib._ v. pp. 118 and 216; g.l. mayr, _die mitteleuropaischen eichengallen in wort und bild_ (vienna, 1870-1871), and the translation of that work, with notes, in the _entomologist_, vols. vii. seq.; also, by the same author, "die einmiethler der mitteleuropaischen eichengallen," _verhandl. d. zoolog.-bot. ges. in wien_, xxii. pp. 669-726; and "die europaischen torymiden," _ib._ xxiv. pp. 53-142 (abstracted in _cistula entomologica_, i., london, 1869-1876); f. low, "beitrage zur kenntnis der gallmucken," _ib._ pp. 143-162, and 321-328; j.e. von bergenstamm and p. low, "synopsis cecidomyidarum," _ib._ xxvi. pp. 1-104; perris, _ann. soc. entom. de france_, 4th ser. vol. x. pp. 176-185; r. osten-sacken, "on the north american cecidomyidae," _smithsonian miscellaneous collections_, vol. vi. (1867), p. 173; e.l. taschenberg, _entomologie fur gartner und gartenfreunde_ (leipzig, 1871); j.w.h. traill, "scottish galls," _scottish naturalist_, i. (1871), pp. 123, &c.; albert muller, "british gall insects," _the entomologist's annual for 1872_, pp. 1-22; b. altum, _forstzoologie_, iii. "insecten," pp. 250 seq. (berlin, 1874); j.h. kaltenbach, _die pflanzenfeinde aus der classe der insecten_ (stuttgart, 1874); a. d'arbois de jubainville and j. vesque, _les maladies des plantes cultivees_, pp. 98-105 (paris, 1878). (f. h. b.) footnotes: [1] quoted in _zoological record_, iv. (1867), p. 192. [2] p. cameron, _scottish naturalist_, ii. pp. 11-15. [3] _entomologist_, vii. p. 47. [4] see in _proc. entom. soc. of london for the year 1873_, p. xvi. [5] see a. muller, _gardener's chronicle_ (1871), pp. 1162 and 1518; and e.a. fitch, _entomologist_, xi. p. 129. [6] _entomologist_, vi. pp. 275-278, 339-340. [7] _verhandl. d. zoolog.-bot. ges. in wien_, xxi. p. 799. [8] darwin, _variations of animals and plants under domestication_, ii. p. 282. [9] "recherches pour servir a l'histoire des galles," _ann. des sci. nat._ xix. pp. 293 sqq. [10] according to dr adler, alternation of generations takes place between _n. lenticularis_ and _spathegaster baccarum_ (see e.a. ormerod, _entomologist_, xi. p. 34). [11] see westwood, _introd. to the mod. classif. of insects_, ii. (1840) p. 130. [12] for figures and descriptions of insect and gall, see _entomologist_, iv. p. 17, vii. p. 241, ix. p. 53, xi. p. 131. [13] _scottish naturalist_, i. (1871) p. 116, &c. [14] vinen, _journ. de pharm. et de chim._ xxx. (1856) p. 290; "english ink-galls," _pharm. journ._ 2nd ser. iv. p. 520. [15] see pereira, _materia medica_, vol. ii. pt. i. p. 347; _pharm. journ._ 1st ser. vol. viii. pp. 422-424. [16] see r.h. stretch and c.d. gibbes, _proc. california acad. of sciences_, iv. pp. 265 and 266. [17] _a complete history of drugs_ (translation), p. 169 (london, 1748). [18] f. porter smith, _contrib. towards the mat. medica ... of china_, p. 100 (1871). [19] r.f. burton, _first footsteps in e. africa_, p. 178 (1856). [20] a.s. packard, jun., _guide to the study of insects_, p. 205 (salem, 1870). [21] on the cecidomyids of _quercus cerris_, see fitch, _entomologist_, xi. p. 14. [22] see, on _cecidomyia oenephila_, von haimhoffen, _verhandl. d. zoolog.-bot. ges. in wien_, xxv. pp. 801-810. [23] see _entomologist's month. mag._ iv. (1868) p. 233; and for figure and description, _entomologist_, xi. p. 13. [24] a.s. packard, jun., _our common insects_, p. 203 (salem, u.s. 1873). on the hessian fly, _cecidomyia destructor_, say, the may brood of which produces swellings immediately above the joints of barley attacked by it, see asa fitch, _the hessian fly_ (albany, 1847), reprinted from _trans. new york state agric. soc._ vol. vi. [25] j. winnertz, _beitrag zu einer monographie der sciarinen_, p. 164 (vienna, 1867). [26] asa fitch, _first and second rep. on the noxious ... insects of the state of new york_, p. 167 (albany, 1856). [27] see e. doubleday, _pharm. journ._ 1st ser, vol. vii. p. 310: and pereira, _ib._ vol. iii. p. 377. [28] _dingler's polyt. journ._ ccxvi. p. 453. [29] for figure and description see _zoology of the "erebus" and "terror,"_ ii. pp. 46, 47 (1844-1875). [30] on the mite-galls and their makers, see f. low, "beitrage zur naturgesch. der gallmilben (_phytoptus_, duj.)," _verhandl. d. zoolog.-bot. ges. in wien_, xxiv. (1874), pp. 2-16, with plate; and "uber milbengallen (acarocecidien) der wiener-gegend," _ib._ pp. 495-508; andrew murray, _economic entomology, aptera_, pp. 331-374 (1876); and f.a.w. thomas, _altere und neue beobachtungen uber phytopto-cecidien_ (halle, 1877).