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    "title": "GALIANI",
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    "verified_text": "galiani, ferdinando (1728-1787), italian economist, was born at chieti on the 2nd of december 1728. he was carefully educated by his uncle monsignor c. galiani at naples and rome with a view to entering the church. galiani gave early promise of distinction as an economist, and even more as a wit. at the age of twenty-two, after he had taken orders, he had produced two works by which his name became widely known far beyond the bounds of his own naples. the one, his _trattato della moneta_, in which he shows himself a strong supporter of the mercantile school, deals with many aspects of the question of exchange, but always with a special reference to the state of confusion then presented by the whole monetary system of the neapolitan government. the other, _raccolta in morte del boia_, established his fame as a humorist, and was highly popular in italian literary circles at the end of the 18th century. in this volume galiani parodied with exquisite felicity, in a series of discourses on the death of the public hangman, the styles of the most pompous and pedantic neapolitan writers of the day. galiani's political knowledge and social qualities now pointed him out to the discriminating eye of king charles, afterwards charles iii. of spain, and his liberal minister tanucci, and he was appointed in 1759 secretary to the neapolitan embassy at paris. this post he held for ten years, when he returned to naples and was made a councillor of the tribunal of commerce, and in 1777, minister of the royal domains. his economic reputation was made by a book written in french and published in paris, namely, his _dialogues sur le commerce des bles_. this work, by its light and pleasing style, and the vivacious wit with which it abounded, delighted voltaire, who spoke of it as a book in the production of which plato and moliere might have been combined! the author, says pecchio, treated his arid subject as fontenelle did the vortices of descartes, or algarotti the newtonian system of the world. the question at issue was that of the freedom of the corn trade, then much agitated, and, in particular, the policy of the royal edict of 1764, which permitted the exportation of grain so long as the price had not arrived at a certain height. the general principle he maintains is that the best system in regard to this trade is to have no system--countries differently circumstanced requiring, according to him, different modes of treatment. he fell, however, into some of the most serious errors of the mercantilists--holding, as indeed did also voltaire and even verri, that one country cannot gain without another losing, and in his earlier treatise going so far as to defend the action of governments in debasing the currency. until his death at naples on the 30th of october 1787, galiani kept up with his old parisian friends a correspondence, which was published in 1818. see _l'abate galiani_, by alberto marghieri (1878), and his correspondence with tanucci in viesseux's _l'archivio storico_ (florence, 1878). galicia (ger. _galizien_; pol. _halicz_), a crownland of austria, bounded e. and n. by russia, s. by bukovina and hungary, and w. by austrian and prussian silesia. it has an area of 30,299 sq. m., and is the largest austrian province. it comprises the old kingdoms of galicia and lodomeria, the duchies of auschwitz and zator, and the grand duchy of cracow. galicia lies on the northern slopes of the carpathians, which with their offshoots cover about a third of the whole area of the country. the surface gradually sinks down by undulating terraces to the valleys of the vistula and dniester. to the n. and e. of these rivers galicia forms a continuation of the great plains of russia, intersected only by a few hills, which descend from the plateaus of poland and podolia, and which attain in some places an altitude of 1300 to 1500 ft. the carpathians, which, extending in the form of an arc, form the boundary between galicia and hungary, are divided into the west and the east beskides, which are separated by the northern ramifications of the massif of the tatra. the highest peaks are the babia gora (5650 ft.), the wolowiec (6773 ft.) and the cserna gora (6505 ft.). the principal passes are those of zdjar over the tatra, and of dukla, vereczke korosmezo or delatyn in the east beskides. the river vistula, which becomes navigable at cracow, and forms afterwards the north-western frontier of galicia, receives the sola, the skawa, the raba, the dunajec with its affluents the poprad and the biala, the wisloka, the san and the bug. the dniester, which rises in the carpathians, within the territory of galicia, becomes navigable at sambor, and receives on the right the stryj, the swica, the lomnica and the bystrzyca, and on the left the lipa, the strypa, the sereth and the zbrucz, the boundary river towards russia. the pruth, which also rises in the carpathians, within the territory of galicia, traverses its south-eastern corner and receives the czeremosz, the boundary river towards bukovina. there are few lakes in the country except mountain tarns; but considerable morasses exist about the upper dneister, the vistula and the san, while the ponds or dams in the podolian valleys are estimated to cover an area of over 200 sq. m. the most frequented mineral springs are the alkaline springs at szczawnica and krynica, the sulphur springs at krzesowice, szklo and lubian, and the iodine springs at iwonicz. exposed to the cold northern and north-eastern winds, and shut out by the carpathians from the warm southerly winds, galicia has the severest climate in austria. it has long winters, with an abundant snowfall, short and wet springs, hot summers and long and steady autumns. the mean annual temperature at lemberg is 46.2 deg. f., and at tarnopol only 43 deg. f. of the total area 48.45% is occupied by arable land, 11.16% by meadows, 9.19% by pastures, 1.39% by gardens and 25.76% by forests. the soil is generally fertile, but agriculture is still backward. the principal products are barley, oats, rye, wheat, maize and leguminous plants. galicia has the largest area under potatoes and legumes in the whole of austria, and hemp, flax, tobacco and hops are of considerable importance. the principal mineral products are salt, coal and petroleum. salt is extracted at wieliczka, bochnia, bolechow, dolina, kalusz and kosow. coals are found in the cracow district at jaworzno, at siersza near trzebinia and at dabrowa. some of the richest petroleum fields in europe are spread in the region of the carpathians, and are worked at boryslaw and schodnica near drohobycz, bobrka and potok near krosno, sloboda-rungurska near kolomea, &c. great quantities of ozocerite are also extracted in the petroliferous region of the carpathians. other mineral products are zinc, extracted at trzebionka and wodna in the cracow region, amounting to 40% of the total zinc production in austria, iron ore, marble and various stones for construction. the sulphur mines of swoszowice near cracow, which had been worked since 1598, were abandoned in 1884. the manufacturing industries of galicia are not highly developed. the first place is occupied by the distilleries, whose output amounts to nearly 40% of the total production of spirits in austria. then follow the petroleum refineries and kindred industries, saw-mills and the fabrication of various wood articles, paper and milling. the sugar factory at tlumacz and the tobacco factory at winniki are amongst the largest establishments of their kind in austria. cloth manufacture is concentrated at biala, while the weaving of linen and of woollens is pursued as a household industry, the former in the carpathian region, the latter in eastern galicia. the commerce, which is mainly in the hands of the jews, is very active, and the transit trade to russia and to the east is also of considerable importance. galicia had in 1900 a population of 7,295,538, which is equivalent to 241 inhabitants per sq. m. the two principal nationalities are the poles (45%) and the ruthenians (42%), the former predominating in the west and in the big towns, and the latter in the east. the poles who inhabit the carpathians are distinguished as goralians (from _gory_, mountain), and those of the lower regions as mazures and cracoviaks. the ruthenian highlanders bear the name of huzulians. the poles are mostly roman catholics, the ruthenians are greek catholics, and there are over 770,000 jews, and about 2500 armenians, who are catholics and stand under the jurisdiction of an armenian archbishop at lemberg. the roman catholic church has an archbishop, at lemberg, and three bishops, at cracow, at przemysl and at tarnow, and the greek catholic church is represented by an archbishop, at lemberg, and two bishops, at przemysl and at stanislau. at the head of the educational institutions stand the two universities of lemberg and cracow, and the polish academy of science at cracow. the local diet is composed of 151 members, including the 3 archbishops, the 5 bishops, and the 2 rectors of the universities, and galicia sends 78 deputies to the reichsrat at vienna. for administrative purposes, the province is divided into 78 districts and 2 autonomous municipalities--lemberg (pop. 159,618), the capital, and cracow (91,310). other principal towns are: przemysl (46,439), kolomea (34,188), tarnow (31,548), tarnopol (30,368), stanislau (29,628), stryj (23,673), jaroslau (22,614), drohobycz (19,146), podgorze (18,142), brody (17,360), sambor (17,027), neusandec (15,724), rzeszow (14,714), zloczow (12,209), grodek (11,845), horodenka (11,615), buczacz (11,504), sniatyn (11,498), brzezany (11,244), kuty (11,127), boryslaw (10,671), chrzanow (10,170), jaworow (10,090), bochnia (10,049) and biala (8265). galicia (or halicz) took its rise, along with the neighbouring principality of lodomeria (or vladimir), in the course of the 12th century--the seat of the ruling dynasty being halicz or halitch. disputes between the galician and lodomerian houses led to the interference of the king of hungary, bela iii., who in 1190 assumed the title of king, and appointed his son andreas lieutenant of the kingdom. polish assistance, however, enabled vladimir, the former possessor, to expel andreas, and in 1198 roman, prince of lodomeria, made himself master of galicia also. on his death in 1205 the struggle between poland and hungary for supremacy in the country was resumed; but in 1215 it was arranged that daniel (1205-1264), son of roman, should be invested with lodomeria, and coloman, son of the hungarian king, with galicia. coloman, however, was expelled by mstislav of novgorod; and in his turn andreas, mstislav's nominee, was expelled by daniel of lodomeria, a powerful prince, who by a flexible policy succeeded in maintaining his position. though in 1235 he had recognized the overlordship of hungary, yet, when he found himself hard pressed by the mongolian general batu, he called in the assistance of innocent iv., and accepted the crown of galicia from the hands of a papal legate; and again, when innocent disappointed his expectation, he returned to his former connexion with the greek church. on the extinction of his line in 1340 casimir iii. of poland incorporated galicia and lemberg; on casimir's death in 1370 louis the great of hungary, in accordance with previous treaties, became king of poland, galicia and lodomeria; and in 1382, by the marriage of louis's daughter with ladislaus ii., galicia, which he had regarded as part of his hungarian rather than of his polish possessions, became definitively assigned to poland. on the first partition of poland, in 1772, the kingdom of galicia and lodomeria came to austria, and to this was added the district of new or west galicia in 1795; but at the peace of vienna in 1809 west galicia and cracow were surrendered to the grand-duchy of warsaw, and in 1810 part of east galicia, including tarnopol, was made over to russia. this latter portion was recovered by austria at the peace of paris (1814), and the former came back on the suppression of the independent republic of cracow in 1846. after the introduction of the constitution of february 1861, galicia gained a larger degree of autonomy than any other province in the austrian empire. see _die osterreichisch-ungarische monarchie in wort und bild_, vol. 19 (wien, 1885-1902, 24 vols.); _die lander osterreich-ungarns in wort und bild_, vol. 10 (wien, 1881-1886, 15 vols.). remarkable sketches of galician life are to be found in the works of the german novelist sacher-masoch (1835-1895). galicia (the ancient _gallaecia_ or _callaecia_, [greek: kallaikia] or [greek: kalaikia]), a captaincy-general, and formerly a kingdom, countship and province, in the north-western angle of spain; bounded on the n. by the bay of biscay, e. by leon and asturias, s. by portugal, and w. by the atlantic ocean. pop. (1900) 1,980,515; area, 11,254 sq. m. in 1833 galicia was divided for administrative purposes into the provinces of corunna, lugo, orense and pontevedra. galicia is traversed by mountain ranges, sometimes regarded as a continuation of the cantabrian chain; and its surface is further broken in the east by the westernmost ridges of that system, which, running in a south-westerly direction, rise above the basin of the mino. the high land north of the headwaters of the mino forms the sole connecting link between the cantabrians properly so-called and the mountains of central and western galicia. the average elevation of the province is considerable, and the maximum height (6593 ft.) is reached in the pena trevinca on the eastern border of orense. the principal river is the mino (portuguese _minho_; lat. _minius_; so named, it is said, from the _minium_ or vermilion found in its bed). rising near mondonedo, within 25 m. of the northern coast, the mino enters the atlantic near the port of guardia, after a course of 170 m. s. and s.w. its lower reaches are navigable by small vessels. of its numerous affluents the most important is the sil, which rises among the lofty mountains between leon and asturias. among other rivers having a westerly direction may be mentioned the tambre, the ulla and the lerez or ler, which falls into the atlantic by estuaries or _rias_ called respectively ria de muros y noya, ria de arosa and ria de pontevedra. the rivers of the northern versant, such as the nera, are, like those of asturias, for the most part short, rapid and subject to violent floods. the coast-line of galicia, extending to about 240 m., is everywhere bold and deeply indented, presenting a large number of secure harbours, and in this respect forming a marked contrast to the neighbouring province. the eo, which bounds galicia on the east, has a deep estuary, the rivadeo or ribadeo, which offers a safe and commodious anchorage. vivero bay and the ria del barquero y vares are of a similar character; while the harbour of ferrol ranks among the best in europe, and is the chief naval station on the northern coast of spain. on the opposite side of betanzos bay (the [greek: megas limen] or _portus magnus_ of the ancients) is the great port of corunna or coruna. the principal port on the western coast is that formed by the deep and sheltered bay of vigo, but there are also good roadsteads at corcubion under cape finisterre, at marin and at carril. the climate of the galician coast is mild and equable, but the interior, owing to the great elevation (the town of lugo is 1500 ft. above sea-level), has a wide range of temperature. the rainfall is exceptionally large, and snow lies on some of the loftier elevations for a considerable portion of the year. the soil is on the whole fertile, and the produce very varied. a considerable quantity of timber is grown on the high lands, and the rich valley pastures support large herds of cattle, while the abundance of oaks and chestnuts favours the rearing of swine. in the lowland districts good crops of maize, wheat, barley, oats and rye, as well as of turnips and potatoes, are obtained. the fruit also is of excellent quality and in great variety, although the culture of the vine is limited to some of the warmer valleys in the southern districts. the _dehesas_ or moorlands abound in game, and fish are plentiful in all the streams. the mineral resources of the province, which are considerable, were known to some extent to the ancients. strabo (c. 63 b.c.-a.d. 21) speaks of its gold and tin, and pliny (a.d. 23-79) mentions the _gemma gallaica_, a precious stone. galicia is also remarkable for the number of its sulphur and other warm springs, the most important of which are those at lugo, and those from which orense is said to take its name (_aquae urentes_). ethnologically the galicians (_gallegos_) are allied to the portuguese, whom they resemble in dialect, in appearance and in habits more than the other inhabitants of the peninsula. the men are well known all over spain and portugal as hardy, honest and industrious, but for the most part somewhat unskilled, labourers; indeed the word _gallego_ has come to be almost a synonym in madrid for a \"hewer of wood and drawer of water.\" it is also used as a term of abuse, meaning \"boor.\" agriculture engages the greater part of the resident population, both male and female; other industries, except the fisheries, are little developed. the largest town in galicia is corunna (pop. 1900, 43,971); santiago de compostela is the ancient capital and an archiepiscopal see; lugo, tuy, mondonedo and orense are bishoprics. _gallaecia_, the country of the galacci, _callaici_ or _gallaici_, seems to have been very imperfectly known to the earlier geographers. according to eratosthenes (276-196 b.c.) the entire population of the peninsula were at one time called _galatae_. the region properly called by their name, bounded on the south by the douro and on the east by the navia, was first entered by the roman legions under decius junius brutus in 137-136 b.c. (livy lv., lvi., _epit._); but the final subjugation cannot be placed earlier than the time of augustus (31 b.c.-a.d. 14). on the partition of spain, which followed the successful invasions of the suevi, alans and vandals, gallaecia fell to the lot of the first named (a.d. 411). after an independent subsistence of nearly 200 years, the suevian kingdom was annexed to the visigothic dominions under leovigild in 585. in 734 it was occupied by the moors, who in turn were driven out by alphonso i. of asturias, in 739. during the 9th and 10th centuries it was the subject of dispute between more than one count of galicia and the suzerain, and its coasts were repeatedly ravaged by the normans. when ferdinand i. divided his kingdom among his sons in 1063, galicia was the portion allotted to garcia, the youngest of the three. in 1072 it was forcibly reannexed by garcia's brother alphonso vi. of castile and thenceforward it remained an integral part of the kingdom of castile or of leon. the honorary title of count of galicia has frequently been borne by younger sons of the spanish sovereign. see annette b. meakin, _galicia, the switzerland of spain_ (london, 1909).",
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