FRUGONI

frugoni, carlo innocenzio maria (1692-1768), italian poet, was born at genoa on the 21st of november 1692. he was originally destined for the church and at the age of fifteen, in opposition to his strong wishes, was shut up in a convent; but although in the following year he was induced to pronounce monastic vows, he had no liking for this life. he acquired considerable reputation as an elegant writer both of latin and italian prose and verse; and from 1716 to 1724 he filled the chairs of rhetoric at brescia, rome, genoa, bologna and modena successively, attracting by his brilliant fluency a large number of students at each university. through cardinal bentivoglio he was recommended to antonio farnese, duke of parma, who appointed him his poet laureate; and he remained at the court of parma until the death of antonio, after which he returned to genoa. shortly afterwards, through the intercession of bentivoglio, he obtained from the pope the remission of his monastic vows, and ultimately succeeded in recovering a portion of his paternal inheritance. after the peace of aix-la-chapelle he returned to the court of parma, and there devoted the later years of his life chiefly to poetical composition. he died on the 20th of december 1768. as a poet frugoni was one of the best of the school of the arcadian academy, and his lyrics and pastorals had great facility and elegance. his collected works were published at parma in 10 vols. in 1799, and a more complete edition appeared at lucca in the same year in 15 vols. a selection from his works was published at brescia in 1782, in 4 vols. fruit (through the french from the lat. _fructus_; _frui_, to enjoy), in its widest sense, any product of the soil that can be enjoyed by man or animals; the word is so used constantly in the bible, and extended, as a hebraism, to offspring or progeny of man and of animals, in such expressions as "the fruit of the body," "of the womb," "fruit of thy cattle" (deut. xxviii. 4), &c., and generally to the product of any action or effort. between this wide and frequently figurative use of the word and its application in the strict botanical sense treated below, there is a popular meaning, regarding the objects denoted by the word entirely from the standpoint of edibility, and differentiating them roughly from those other products of the soil, which, regarded similarly, are known as vegetables. in this sense "fruit" is applied to such seed-envelopes of plants as are edible, either raw or cooked, and are usually sweet, juicy or of a refreshing flavour. but applications of the word in this sense are apt to be loose and shifting according to the fashion of the time. fruit, in the botanical sense, is developed from the flower as the result of fertilization of the ovule. after fertilization various changes take place in the parts of the flower. those more immediately concerned in the process, the anther and stigma, rapidly wither and decay, while the filaments and style often remain for some time; the floral envelopes become dry, the petals fall, and the sepals are either deciduous, or remain persistent in an altered form; the ovary becomes enlarged, forming the _pericarp_; and the ovules are developed as the seeds, containing the embryo-plant. the term fruit is strictly applied to the mature pistil or ovary, with the seeds in its interior; but it often includes other parts of the flower, such as the bracts and floral envelopes. thus the fruit of the hazel and oak consists of the ovary enveloped by the bracts; that of the apple and pear, of the ovary and floral receptacle; and that of the pine-apple, of the whole inflorescence. such fruits are sometimes distinguished as _pseudocarps_. in popular language, the fruit includes all those parts which exhibit a striking change as the result of fertilization. in general, the fruit is not ripened unless fertilization has been effected; but cases occur as the result of cultivation in which the fruit swells and becomes to all appearance perfect, while no seeds are produced. thus, there are seedless oranges, grapes and pineapples. when the ovules are unfertilized, it is common to find that the ovary withers and does not come to maturity; but in the case of bananas, plantains and bread-fruit, the non-development of seeds seems to lead to a larger growth and a greater succulence of fruit. the fruit, like the ovary, may be formed of a single carpel or of several. it may have one cell or cavity, being _unilocular_; or many, _multilocular_, &c. the number and nature of the divisions depend on the number of carpels and the extent to which their edges are folded inwards. the appearances presented by the ovary do not always remain permanent in the fruit. great changes are observed to take place, not merely as regards the increased size of the ovary, its softening or hardening, but also in its internal structure, owing to the suppression, additional formation or enlargement of parts. thus, in the ash (fig. 1) an ovary with two cells, each containing an ovule attached to a central placenta, is changed into a unilocular fruit with one seed; one ovule becomes abortive, while the other, g, gradually enlarging until the septum is pushed to one side, unites with the walls of the cell, and the placenta appears to be parietal. in the oak and hazel, an ovary with three and two cells respectively, and two ovules in each, produces a one-celled fruit with one seed. in the coco-nut, a trilocular and triovular ovary produces a one-celled, one-seeded fruit. this abortion may depend on the pressure caused by the development of certain ovules, or it may proceed from non-fertilization of all the ovules and consequent non-enlargement of the carpels. again, by the growth of the placenta, or the folding inwards of parts of the carpels, divisions occur in the fruit which did not exist in the ovary. in _cathartocarpus fistula_ a one-celled ovary is changed into a fruit having each of its seeds in a separate cell, in consequence of spurious dissepiments being produced horizontal from the inner wall of the ovary. in flax (_linum_) by the folding inwards of the back of the carpels a five-celled ovary becomes a ten-celled fruit. in _astragalus_ the folding inwards of the dorsal suture converts a one-celled ovary into a two-celled fruit; and in _oxytropis_ the folding of the ventral suture gives rise to a similar change. the development of cellular or pulpy matter, and the enlargement of parts not forming whorls of the flower, frequently alter the appearance of the fruit, and render it difficult to discover its formation. in the gooseberry (fig. 29), grape, guava, tomato and pomegranate, the seeds nestle in pulp formed by the placentas. in the orange the pulpy matter surrounding the seeds is formed by succulent cells, which are produced from the inner partitioned lining of the pericarp. in the strawberry the receptacle becomes succulent, and bears the mature carpels on its convex surface (fig. 2); in the rose there is a fleshy hollow receptacle which bears the carpels on its concave surface (fig. 3). in the juniper the scaly bracts grow up round the seeds and become succulent, and in the fig (fig. 4) the receptacle becomes succulent and encloses an inflorescence. [illustration: fig. 1.--samara or winged fruit of ash (_fraxinus_). 1, entire, with its wing a; 2, lower portion cut transversely, to show that it consists of two cells; one of which, l, is abortive, and is reduced to a very small cavity, while the other is much enlarged and filled with a seed g. fig. 2.--fruit of the strawberry (_fragaria vesca_), consisting of an enlarged succulent receptacle, bearing on its surface the small dry seed-like fruits (achenes). (after duchartre.) from strasburger's _lehrbuch der botanik_, by permission of gustav fischer. fig. 3.--fruit of the rose cut vertically. s', fleshy hollowed receptacle; s, persistent sepals; _fr_, ripe carpels; e, stamens, withered. fig. 4.--peduncle of fig (_ficus carica_), ending in a hollow receptacle enclosing numerous male and female flowers. fig. 5.--fruit of cherry (_prunus cerasus_) in longitudinal section. ep, epicarp; m, mesocarp; en, endocarp. from strasburger's _lehrbuch der botanik_, by permission of gustav fischer.] the pericarp consists usually of three layers, the external, or _epicarp_ (fig. 5, ep); the middle, or _mesocarp_, m; and the internal, or _endocarp_, _en_. these layers are well seen in such a fruit as the peach, plum or cherry, where they are separable one from the other; in them the epicarp forms what is commonly called the skin; the mesocarp, much developed, forms the flesh or pulp, and hence has sometimes been called _sarcocarp_; while the endocarp, hardened by the production of woody cells, forms the _stone_ or _putamen_ immediately covering the kernel or seed. the pulpy matter found in the interior of fruits, such as the gooseberry, grape and others, is formed from the placentas, and must not be confounded with the sarcocarp. in some fruits, as in the nut, the three layers become blended together and are indistinguishable. in bladder senna (_colutea arborescens_) the pericarp retains its leaf-like appearance, but in most cases it becomes altered both in consistence and in colour. thus in the date the epicarp is the outer brownish skin, the pulpy matter is the mesocarp or sarcocarp, and the thin papery-like lining is the endocarp covering the hard seed. in the medlar the endocarp becomes of a stony hardness. in the melon the epicarp and endocarp are very thin, while the mesocarp forms the bulk of the fruit, differing in texture and taste in its external and internal parts. the rind of the orange consists of epicarp and mesocarp, while the endocarp forms partitions in the interior, filled with pulpy cells. the part of the pericarp attached to the peduncle is the base, and the point where the style or stigma existed is the apex. this latter is not always the apparent apex, as in the case of the ovary; it may be lateral or even basilar. the style sometimes remains in a hardened form, rendering the fruit _apiculate_; at other times it falls off, leaving only traces of its existence. the presence of the style or stigma serves to distinguish certain single-seeded pericarps from seeds. [illustration: fig. 6.--seed-vessel or capsule of campion, opening by ten teeth at the apex. the calyx c is seen surrounding the seed-vessel. fig. 7.--capsule of poppy, opening by pores p, under the radiating peltate stigma s.] dehiscence of fruits. when the fruit is mature and the seeds are ripe, the carpels usually give way either at the ventral or dorsal suture or at both, and so allow the seeds to escape. the fruit in this case is _dehiscent_. but some fruits are _indehiscent_, falling to the ground entire, and the seeds eventually reaching the soil by their decay. by dehiscence the pericarp becomes divided into different pieces, or _valves_, the fruit being univalvular, bivalvular or multivalvular, &c., according as there are one, two or many valves. the splitting extends the whole length of the fruit, or is partial, the valves forming teeth at the apex, as in the order caryophyllaceae (fig. 6). sometimes the valves are detached only at certain points, and thus dehiscence takes place by pores at the apex, as in poppy (fig. 7), or at the base, as in _campanula_. indehiscent fruits are either dry, as the nut, or fleshy, as the cherry and apple. they are formed of one or several carpels. in the former case they usually contain only a single seed, which may become so incorporated with the pericarp as to appear to be naked, as in the grain of wheat and generally in grasses. in such cases the presence of the remains of style or stigma determines their true nature. [illustration: fig. 8.--dry dehiscent fruit. the pod (legume) of the pea; r, the dorsal suture; b, the ventral; c, calyx; s, seeds. from vines' _students' text-book of botany_, by permission of swan sonnenschein & co. fig. 9.--(1) fruit or capsule of meadow saffron (_colchicum autumnale_), dehiscing along the septa (septicidally); (2) same cut across, showing the three chambers with the seeds attached along the middle line (axile placentation). fig. 10.--diagram to illustrate the septicidal dehiscence in a pentalocular capsule. the loculaments l correspond to the number of the carpels, which separate by splitting through the septa, s. fig. 11.--the seed vessel (capsule) of the flower-de-luce (_iris_), opening in a loculicidal manner. the three valves bear the septa in the centre, and the opening takes place through the back of the loculaments. each valve is formed by the halves of contiguous carpels. fig. 12.--diagram to illustrate loculicidal dehiscence. the loculaments l, split at the back, and the valves separate, bearing the septa s on their centres. fig. 13.--diagram to illustrate septifragal dehiscence, in which the dehiscence takes place through the back of the loculaments l, and the valves separate from the septa s, which are left attached to the placentas in the centre.] dehiscent fruits, when composed of single carpels, may open by the ventral suture only, as in the paeony, hellebore, _aquilegia_ (fig. 28) and _caltha_; by the dorsal suture only, as in magnolias and some _proteaceae_, or by both together, as in the pea (fig. 8) and bean; in these cases the dehiscence is _sutural_. when composed of several united carpels, two types of dehiscence occur--a longitudinal and a transverse. in the longitudinal the separation may take place by the dissepiments throughout their length, so that the fruit is resolved into its original carpels, and each valve represents a carpel, as in rhododendron, _colchicum_, &c.; this dehiscence, in consequence of taking place through the septum, is called _septicidal_ (figs. 9, 10). the valves separate from their commissure, or central line of union, carrying the placentas with them, or they leave the latter in the centre, so as to form with the axis a column of a cylindrical, conical or prismatic shape. dehiscence is _loculicidal_ when the union between the edges of the carpels is persistent, and they dehisce by the dorsal suture, or through the back of the loculaments, as in the lily and iris (figs. 11, 12). in these cases each valve consists of a half of each of two contiguous carpels. the placentas either remain united to the axis, or they separate from it, being attached to the septa on the valves. when the outer walls of the carpels break off from the septa, leaving them attached to the central column, the dehiscence is said to be _septifragal_ (fig. 13), and where, as in _linum catharticum_ and _calluna_, the splitting takes place first of all in a septicidal manner, the fruit is described as _septicidally septifragal_; while in other cases, as in thorn apple (_datura stramonium_), where the splitting is at first loculicidal, the dehiscence is _loculicidally septifragal_. in all those forms the separation of the valves takes place either from above downwards or from below upwards. in _saxifraga_ a splitting for a short distance of the ventral sutures of the carpels takes place, so that a large apical pore is formed. in the fruit of cruciferae, as wallflower (fig. 14), the valves separate from the base of the fruit, leaving a central _replum_, or frame, which supports the false septum formed by a prolongation from the parietal placentas on opposite sides of the fruit, extending between the ventral sutures of the carpels. in orchidaceae (fig. 15) the pericarp, when ripe, separates into three valves in a loculicidal manner, but the midribs of the carpels, to which the placentas are attached, often remain adherent to the axis both at the apex and base after the valves bearing the seeds have fallen. the other type of dehiscence is transverse, or _circumscissile_, when the upper part of the united carpels falls off in the form of a lid or operculum, as in _anagallis_ and in henbane (_hyoscyamus_) (fig. 16). [illustration: fig. 14.--siliqua or seed-vessel of wallflower (_cheiranthus cheiri_), opening by two valves, which separate from the base upwards, leaving the seeds attached to the dissepiment which is supported by the replum. from strasburger's _lehrbuch der botanik_, by permission of gustav fischer. fig. 15.--capsule of an orchid (_xylobium_). v, valve. fig. 16.--seed-vessel of _anagallisarvensis_, opening by circumscissile dehiscence. from strasburger's _lehrbuch der botanik_, by permission of gustav fischer. fig. 17.--lomentum of _hedysarum_ which, when ripe, separates transversely into single-seeded portions or mericarps. fig. 18.--fruit of _geranium pratense_, after splitting.] sometimes the axis is prolonged beyond the base of the carpels, as in the mallow and castor-oil plant, the carpels being united to it throughout their length by their faces, and separating from it without opening. in the umbelliferae the two carpels separate from the lower part of the axis, and remain attached by their apices to a prolongation of it, called a _carpophore_ or _podocarp_, which splits into two (fig. 25) and suspends them; hence the fruit is termed a _cremocarp_, which divides into two _mericarps_. the general term _schizocarp_ is applied to all dry fruits, which break up into two or more one-seeded indehiscent mericarps, as in _hedysarum_ (fig. 17). in the order geraniaceae the styles remain attached to a central column, and the mericarps separate from below upwards, before dehiscing by their ventral suture (fig. 18). carpels which separate one from another in this manner are called _cocci_. they are well seen in the order euphorbiaceae, where there are usually three such carpels, and the fruit is termed tricoccus. in many of them, as _hura crepitans_, the cocci separate with great force and elasticity. in many leguminous plants, such as _ornithopus_, _hedysarum_ (fig. 17), _entada_, _coronilla_ and the gum-arabic plant (_acacia arabica_), the fruit becomes a schizocarp by the formation of transverse partitions from the folding in of the sides of the pericarp, and distinct separations taking place at these partitions. fruits are formed by one flower, or are the product of several flowers combined. in the former case they are either _apocarpous_, of one mature carpel or of several separate free carpels; or _syncarpous_, of several carpels, more or less completely united. when the fruit is composed of the ovaries of several flowers united, it is usual to find the bracts and floral envelopes also joined with them, so as to form one mass; hence such fruits are known as multiple, confluent or _anthocarpous_. the term simple is applied to fruits which are formed by the ovary of a single flower, whether they are composed of one or several carpels, and whether these carpels are separate or combined. [illustration: from vines' _students' text-book of botany_, by permission of swan sonnenschein & co. fig. 19.--dry one-seeded fruit of dock (_rumex_) cut vertically. ov, pericarp formed from ovary wall; s, seed; e, endosperm; pl, embryo with radicle pointing upwards and cotyledons downwards--enlarged. fig. 20.--achene of _ranunculus arvensis_ in longitudinal section; e, endosperm; pl, embryo. (after baillon, enlarged.) from strasburger's _lehrbuch der botanik_, by permission of gustav fischer. fig. 21.--fruit of common sycamore (_acer pseudoplatanus_), dividing into two mericarps m; s, pedicel; fl, wings (nat. size).] dispersal of fruit or seed. the object of the fruit in the economy of the plant is the protection and nursing of the developing seed and the dispersion of the ripe seeds. hence, generally, one-seeded fruits are indehiscent, while fruits containing more than one seed open to allow of the dispersal of the seeds over as wide an area as possible. the form, colour, structure and method of dehiscence of fruits and the form of the contained seeds are intimately associated with the means of dispersal, which fall into several categories. (1) by a mechanism residing in the fruit. thus many fruits open suddenly when they are dry, and the seeds are ejected by the twisting or curving of the valves, or in some other way; e.g. in gorse, by the spiral curving of the valves; in _impatiens_, by the twisting of the cocci; in squirting cucumber, by the pressure exerted on the pulpy contents by the walls of the pericarp. (2) by aid of various external agencies such as water. fruits or seeds are sometimes sufficiently buoyant to float for a long time on sea- or fresh-water; e.g. coco-nut, by means of its thick, fibrous coat (mesocarp), is carried hundreds of miles in the sea, the tough, leathery outer coat (epicarp) preventing it from becoming water-soaked. fruits and seeds of west indian plants are thrown up on the coasts of north-west europe, having been carried by the gulf stream, and will often germinate; many are rendered buoyant by air-containing cavities, and the embryo is protected from the seawater by the tough coat of fruit or seed. water-lily seeds are surrounded with a spongy tissue when set free from the fruit, and float for some distance before dropping to the bottom. (3) the most general agent in the dispersal of seeds is the wind or currents of air--the fruit or seed being rendered buoyant by wing-developments as in fruits of ash (fig. 1) or maple (fig. 21), seeds of pines and firs, or many members of the order bignoniaceae; or hair-developments as in fruits of clematis, where the style forms a feathery appendage, fruits of many compositae (dandelion, thistle, &c.), which are crowned by a plumose pappus, or seeds of willow and poplar, or _asclepias_ (fig. 36), which bear tufts of silky hairs; to this category belong bladder-like fruits, such as bladder-senna, which are easily rolled by the wind, or cases like the so-called rose of jericho, a small cruciferous plant (_anastatica hierocuntica_), where the plant dries up after developing its fruits and becomes detached from the ground; the branches curl inwards, and the whole plant is rolled over the dry ground by the wind. the wind also aids the dispersal of the seeds in the case of fruits which open by small teeth (many caryophyllaceae [fig. 6]) or pores (poppy [fig. 7], _campanula_, &c.); the seeds are in these cases small and numerous, and are jerked through the pores when the capsules, which are generally borne on long, dry stems or stalks, are shaken by the wind. (4) in other cases members of the animal world aid in seed-dispersal. fruits often bear stiff hairs or small hooks, which cling to the coat of an animal or the feathers of a bird; such are fruits of cleavers (_galium aparine_), a common hedge-row plant, _ranunculus arvensis_ (fig. 20), carrot, _geum_, &c.; or the fruit or seed has an often bright-coloured, fleshy covering, which is sought by birds as food, as in stone-fruits such as plum, cherry (fig. 5), &c., where the seed is protected from injury in the mouth or stomach of the animal by the hard endocarp; or the hips of the rose (fig. 3), where the succulent scarlet "fruit" (the swollen receptacle) envelops a number of small dry true fruits (achenes), which cling by means of stiff hairs to the beak of the bird. [illustration: fig. 22.--vertical section of a grain of wheat, showing embryo below at the base of the endosperm e; s, scutellum separating embryo from endosperm; f.l, foliage leaf; p.s, sheath of plumule; p.r, primary root; s.p.r, sheath of primary root. fig. 23.--fruit of comfrey (_symphytum_) surrounded by persistent calyx, c. the style s appears to arise from the base of the carpels, enlarged. fig. 24.--ovary of _foeniculum officinale_ with pendulous ovules, in longitudinal section. (after berg and schmidt, magnified.) from strasburger's _lehrbuch der botanik_, by permission of gustav fischer. fig. 25.--fruit of _carum carui_. a, ovary of the flower; b, ripe fruit. the two carpels have separated so as to form two mericarps (m). part of the septum constitutes the carpophore (a). p, top of flower-stalk; d, disk on top of ovary; n, stigma. from vines' _students' text-book of botany_, by permission of swan sonnenschein & co.] forms of fruit. simple fruits have either a _dry_ or _succulent_ pericarp. the _achene_ is a dry, one-seeded, indehiscent fruit, the pericarp of which is closely applied to the seed, but separable from it. it is solitary, forming a single fruit, as in the dock (fig. 19) and in the cashew, where it is supported on a fleshy peduncle; or _aggregate_, as in _ranunculus_ (fig. 20), where several achenes are placed on a common elevated receptacle. in the strawberry the achenes (fig. 2) are aggregated on a convex succulent receptacle. in the rose they are supported on a concave receptacle (fig. 3), and in the fig the succulent receptacle completely encloses the achenes (fig. 4). in _dorstenia_ the achenes are situated on a flat or slightly concave receptacle. hence what in common language are called the seeds of the strawberry, rose and fig, are in reality ripe carpels. the styles occasionally remain attached to the achenes in the form of feathery appendages, as in _clematis_. in compositae, the fruit is an inferior achene (_cypsela_), to which the pappus (modified calyx) remains adherent. such is also the nature of the fruit in dipsacaceae (e.g. scabious). when the pericarp is thin, and appears like a bladder surrounding the seed, the achene is termed a _utricle_, as in amarantaceae. when the pericarp is extended in the form of a winged appendage, a _samara_ or _samaroid achene_ is produced, as in the ash (fig. 1) and common sycamore (fig. 21). in these cases there are usually two achenes united, one of which, however, as in _fraxinus_ (fig. 1), may be abortive. the wing surrounds the fruit longitudinally in the elm. when the pericarp becomes so incorporated with the seed as to be inseparable from it, as in grains of wheat (fig. 22), maize, oats and other grasses, then the name _caryopsis_ is given. the one-seeded portions (mericarps) of schizocarps often take the form of achenes, e.g. the mericarps of the mallows or of umbellifers (figs. 24, 25). in labiatae and boraginaceae (e.g. comfrey, fig. 23), where the bicarpellary ovary becomes our one-seeded portions in the fruit, the partial fruits are of the nature of achenes or nutlets according to the texture (leathery or hard) of the pericarp. [illustration: from strasburger's _lehrbuch der botanik_, by permission of gustav fischer. fig. 26.--cupule of _quercus aegilops_. cp, cupule; gl, fruit. (after duchartre.)] the _nut_ or _glans_ is a dry one-celled indehiscent fruit with a hardened pericarp, often surrounded by bracts at the base, and, when mature, containing only one seed. in the young state the ovary often contains two or more ovules, but only one comes to maturity. it is illustrated by the fruits of the hazel and chestnut, which are covered by leafy bracts, in the form of a _husk_, and by the acorn, in which the bracts and receptacle form a _cupula_ or _cup_ (fig. 26). the parts of the pericarp of the nut are united so as to appear one. in common language the term nut is very vaguely applied both to fruit and seeds. the _drupe_ is a succulent usually one-seeded indehiscent fruit, with a pericarp easily distinguishable into epicarp, mesocarp and endocarp. this term is applied to such fruits as the cherry (fig. 5), peach, plum, apricot or mango. the endocarp is usually hard, forming the stone (putamen) of the fruit, which encloses the kernel or seed. the mesocarp is generally pulpy and succulent, so as to be truly a sarcocarp, as in the peach, but it is sometimes of a tough texture, as in the almond, and at other times is more or less fibrous, as in the coco-nut. in the almond there are often two ovules formed, only one of which comes to perfection. in the raspberry and bramble several small drupes or _drupels_ are aggregated so as to constitute an _etaerio_. the _follicle_ is a dry unilocular many-seeded fruit, formed from one carpel and dehiscing by the ventral suture. it is rare to meet with a solitary follicle forming the fruit. there are usually several aggregated together, either in a whorl on a shortened receptacle, as in hellebore, aconite, larkspur, columbine (figs. 27, 28) or the order crassulaceae, or in a spiral manner on an elongated receptacle, as in _magnolia_ and _banksia_. occasionally, follicles dehisce by the dorsal suture, as in _magnolia grandiflora_ and _banksia_. [illustration: fig. 27.--fruit of columbine (_aquilegia_), formed of five follicles. fig. 28.--single follicle, showing dehiscence by the ventral suture. fig. 29.--transverse section of berry of gooseberry, showing the seeds attached to the parietal placentas and immersed in pulp, which is formed partly from the endocarp, partly from the seed-coat. fig. 30.--section of the fruit of the apple (_pyrus malus_), or pome, consisting of a fleshy covering formed by the floral receptacle and the true fruit or core with five cavities with seeds.] the _legume_ or _pod_ is a dry monocarpellary unilocular many-seeded fruit, formed from one carpel, dehiscing both by the ventral and the dorsal suture. it characterizes leguminous plants, as the bean and pea (fig. 8). in the bladder-senna it forms an inflated legume. in some leguminosae, as _arachis_, _cathartocarpus fistula_ and the tamarind, the fruit must be considered a legume, although it does not dehisce. the first of these plants produces its fruit underground, and is called earth-nut; the second has a partitioned legume and is schizocarpic; and both the second and third have pulpy matter surrounding the seeds. some legumes are schizocarpic by the formation of constrictions externally. such a form is the _lomentum_ or _lomentaceous legume_ of _hedysarum_ (fig. 17), _coronilla_, _ornithopus_, _entada_ and of some acacias. in _medicago_ the legume ~~ is twisted like a snail, and in _caesalpinia coriaria_, or divi-divi, it is vermiform or curved like a worm. sometimes the number of seeds is reduced, as in _erythrina monosperma_ and _geoffroya superba_, which are one-seeded, and in _pterocarpus_ and _dalbergia_, which are two-seeded. [illustration: fig. 31.--transverse section of the fruit of the melon (_cucumis melo_), showing the placentas with the seeds attached to them. the three carpels forming the pepo are separated by partitions. from the centre processes pass outwards, ending in the curved placenta. the _berry_ (_bacca_) is a term applied generally to all fruits with seeds immersed in pulp, and includes fruits of very various origin. in _actaea_ (baneberry) or _berberis_ (barberry) it is derived from a single free carpel; generally, however, it is the product of a syncarpous ovary, which is superior, as in grape or potato, or inferior, as in gooseberry (fig. 29) or currant. in the pomegranate there is a peculiar baccate many-celled inferior fruit, having a tough rind, enclosing two rows of carpels placed one above the other. the seeds are immersed in pulp, and are attached irregularly to the wall, base and centre of the loculi. in the baobab there is a multilocular syncarpous fruit, in which the seeds are immersed in pulp. the _pepo_, another indehiscent syncarpous fruit, is illustrated by the fruit of the gourd, melon (fig. 31) and other cucurbitaceae. it is formed of three carpels, surmounted by the calyx; the rind is thick and fleshy, and there are three or more seed-bearing parietal placentas, either surrounding a central cavity or prolonged inwards into it. the fruit of the papaw resembles the pepo, but the calyx is not superior. the _hesperidium_ is the name given to such indehiscent fleshy syncarpous fruits as the orange, lemon and shaddock, in which the epicarp and mesocarp form a separable rind, and the endocarp sends prolongations inwards, forming triangular divisions, to the inner angle of which the seeds are attached, pulpy cells being developed around them from the wall. both pepo and hesperidium may be considered as modifications of the berry. the _pome_ (fig. 30), seen in the apple, pear, quince, medlar and hawthorn, is a fleshy indehiscent syncarpous fruit, in the formation of which the receptacle takes part. the outer succulent part is the swollen receptacle, the horny core being the true fruit developed from the usually five carpels and enclosing the seeds. in the medlar the core (or true pericarp) is of a stony hardness, while the outer succulent covering is open at the summit. the pome somewhat resembles the fruit of the rose (fig. 3), where the succulent receptacle surrounds a number of separate achenes. the name _capsule_ is applied generally to all dry syncarpous fruits, which dehisce by valves. it may thus be unilocular or multilocular, one- or many-seeded. the true valvular capsule is observed in _colchicum_ (fig. 9), lily and iris (fig. 11). the _porose capsule_ is seen in the poppy (fig. 7), _antirrhinum_ and _campanula_. in _campanula_ the pores occur at the base of the capsule, which becomes inverted when ripe. when the capsule opens by a lid, or by circumscissile dehiscence, it is called a _pyxidium_, as in pimpernel (_anagallis arvensis_) (fig. 16), henbane and monkey-pot (_lecythis_). the capsule assumes a screw-like form in _helicteres_, and a star-like form in star-anise (_illicium anisatum_). in certain instances the cells of the capsule separate from each other, and open with elasticity to scatter the seeds. this kind of capsule is met with in the sandbox tree (_hura crepitans_) and other euphorbiaceae, where the cocci, containing each a single seed, burst asunder with force; and in geraniaceae, where the cocci, each containing, when mature, usually one seed, separate from the carpophore, become curved upwards by their adherent styles, and open by the ventral suture (fig. 18). the _siliqua_ is a dry syncarpous bilocular many-seeded fruit, formed from two carpels, with a false septum, dehiscing by two valves from below upwards, the valves separating from the placentas and leaving them united by the septum (fig. 32). the seeds are attached on both sides of the septum, either in one row or in two. when the fruit is long and narrow it is a _siliqua_ (fig. 14); when broad and short, _silicula_ (fig. 33). it occurs in cruciferous plants, as wallflower, cabbage and cress. in _glaucium_ and _eschscholtzia_ (papaveraceae) the dissepiment is of a spongy nature. it may become transversely constricted (_lomentaceous_), as in radish (_raphanus_) and sea-kale, and it may be reduced, as in woad (_isatis_), to a one-seeded condition. it sometimes happens that the ovaries of two flowers unite so as to form a double fruit (_syncarp_). this may be seen in many species of honeysuckle. but the fruits which are now to be considered consist usually of the floral envelopes, as well as the ovaries of several flowers united into one, and are called _multiple_ or _confluent_. the term _anthocarpous_ has also been applied as indicating that the floral envelopes as well as the carpels are concerned in the formation of the fruit. the _sorosis_ is a succulent multiple fruit formed by the confluence of a spike of flowers, as in the fruit of the pine-apple (fig. 34), the bread-fruit and jack-fruit. similarly the fruit of the mulberry represents a catkin-like inflorescence. the _syconus_ is an anthocarpous fruit, in which the receptacle completely encloses numerous flowers and becomes succulent. the fig (fig. 4) is of this nature, and what are called its seeds are the achenes of the numerous flowers scattered over the succulent hollowed receptacle. in _dorstenia_ the axis is less deeply hollowed, and of a harder texture, the fruit exhibiting often very anomalous forms. the _strobilus_, or _cone_, is a seed-bearing spike, more or less elongated, covered with scales, each of which may be regarded as representing a separate flower, and has often two seeds at its base; the seeds are naked, no ovary being present. this fruit is seen in the cones of firs, spruces, larches and cedars, which have received the name of coniferae, or cone-bearers, on this account. cone-like fruit is also seen in most cycadaceae. the scales of the strobilus are sometimes thick and closely united, so as to form a more or less angular and rounded mass, as in the cypress; while in the juniper they become fleshy, and are so incorporated as to form a globular fruit like a berry. the dry fruit of the cypress and the succulent fruit of the juniper have received the name of _galbulus_. in the hop the fruit is called also a strobilus, but in it the scales are thin and membranous, and the seeds are not naked but are contained in pericarps. [illustration: fig. 32.--honesty (_lunaria biennis_), showing the septum after the carpels have fallen away. from strasburger's _lehrbuch der botanik_, by permission of gustav fischer. fig. 33.--silicula or pouch of shepherd's purse (_capsella_), opening by two folded valves, which separate from above downwards. the partition is narrow, hence the silicula is angustiseptal. from strasburger's _lehrbuch der botanik_, by permission of gustav fischer. fig. 34.--fruit of the pine-apple (_ananassa sativa_), developed from a spike of numerous flowers with bracts, united so as to form a collective or anthocarpous fruit. the crown of the pine-apple, c, consists of a series of empty bracts prolonged beyond the fruit.] the same causes which produce alterations in the other parts of the flower give rise to anomalous appearances in the fruit. the carpels, in place of bearing seeds, are sometimes changed into leaves, with lobes at their margins. leaves are sometimes produced from the upper part of the fruit. in the genus _citrus_, to which the orange and lemon belong, it is very common to meet with a separation of the carpels, so as to produce what are called horned oranges and fingered citrons. in this case a syncarpous fruit has a tendency to become apocarpous. in the orange we occasionally find a supernumerary row of carpels produced, giving rise to the appearance of small and imperfect oranges enclosed within the original one; the navel orange is of this nature. it sometimes happens that, by the union of flowers, double fruits are produced. occasionally a double fruit is produced, not by the incorporation of two flowers, but by the abnormal development of a second carpel in the flower. _arrangement of fruits._ a. true fruits--developed from the ovary alone. 1. pericarp not fleshy or fibrous. i. indehiscent--not opening to allow the escape of the seeds--generally one-seeded. achene; caryopsis; cypsela; nut; schizocarp. ii. dehiscent--the pericarp splits to allow the escape of the seeds--generally many-seeded. follicle; legume; siliqua; capsule. 2. pericarp generally differentiated into distinct layers, one of which is succulent or fibrous. drupe; berry. b. pseudocarps--the development extends beyond the ovary. pome; syconus; sorosis. _the seed._--the _seed_ is formed from the ovule as the result of fertilization. it is contained in a seed-vessel formed from the ovary in the plants called _angiospermous_; while in _gymnospermous_ plants, such as coniferae and cycadaceae, it is naked, or, in other words, has no true pericarp. it sometimes happens in angiosperms, that the seed-vessel is ruptured at an early period of growth, so that the seeds become more or less exposed during their development; this occurs in mignonette, where the capsule opens at the apex, and in _cuphea_, where the placenta bursts through the ovary and floral envelopes, and appears as an erect process bearing the young seeds. after fertilization the ovule is greatly changed, in connexion with the formation of the embryo. in the embryo-sac of most angiosperms (q.v.) there is a development of cellular tissue, the endosperm, more or less filling the embryo-sac. in gymnosperms (q.v.) the endosperm is formed preparatory to fertilization. the fertilized egg enlarges and becomes multicellular, forming the embryo. the embryo-sac enlarges greatly, displacing gradually the surrounding nucellus, which eventually forms merely a thin layer around the sac, or completely disappears. the remainder of the nucellus and the integuments of the ovules form the seed-coats. in some cases (fig. 35) a delicate inner coat or _tegmen_ can be distinguished from a tougher outer coat or _testa_; often, however, the layers are not thus separable. the consistency of the seed-coat, its thickness, the character of its surface, &c., vary widely, the variations being often closely associated with the environment or with the means of seed-dispersal. an account of the development of the seed from the ovule will be found in the article angiosperms. when the pericarp is dehiscent the seed-covering is of a strong and often rough character; but when the pericarp is indehiscent and encloses the seed for a long period, the outer seed-coat is thin and soft. the cells of the testa are often coloured, and have projections and appendages of various kinds. thus in _abrus precatorius_ and _adenanthera pavonina_ it is of a bright red colour; in french beans it is beautifully mottled; in the almond it is veined; in the tulip and primrose it is rough; in the snapdragon it is marked with depressions; in cotton and _asclepias_ (fig. 36) it has hairs attached to it; and in mahogany, _bignonia_, and the pines and firs it is expanded in the form of wing-like appendages (fig. 37). in _collomia_, _acanthodium_, _cobaea scandens_ and other seeds, it contains spiral cells, from which, when moistened with water, the fibres uncoil in a beautiful manner; and in flax (_linum_) and others the cells are converted into mucilage. these structural peculiarities of the testa in different plants have relation to the scattering of the seed and its germination upon a suitable nidus. but in some plants the pericarps assume structures which subserve the same purpose; this especially occurs in small pericarps enclosing single seeds, as achenes, caryopsides, &c. thus in compositae and valerian, the pappose limb of the calyx forms a parachute to the pericarp; in labiatae and some compositae spiral cells are formed in the epicarp; and the epicarp is prolonged as a wing in _fraxinus_ (fig. 1) and _acer_ (fig. 21). [illustration: fig. 35.--seed of pea (_pisum_) with one cotyledon removed. c, remaining cotyledon; ch, chalaza-point at which the nourishing vessels enter; e, tegmen or inner coat; f, funicle or stalk; g, plumule of embryo; m, micropyle; pl, placenta; r, radicle of embryo; t, tigellum or stalk between root and plumule; te, testa. fig. 36.--seed of _asclepias_, with a cluster of hairs arising from the edges of the micropyle.] sometimes there is an additional covering to the seed, formed after fertilization, to which the name _arillus_ has been given (fig. 38). this is seen in the passion-flower, where the covering arises from the placenta or extremity of the funicle at the base of the ovule and passes upwards towards the apex, leaving the micropyle uncovered. in the nutmeg and spindle tree this additional coat is formed from above downwards, constituting in the former case a laciniated scarlet covering called _mace_. in such instances it has been called an _arillode_ (fig. 39). this arillode, after growing downwards, may be reflected upwards so as to cover the micropyle. the fleshy scarlet covering formed around the naked seed in the yew is by some considered of the nature of an aril. on the testa, at various points, there are produced at times other cellular bodies, to which the name of _strophioles_, or _caruncles_, has been given, the seeds being strophiolate or carunculate. these tumours may occur near the base of the seed, as in _polygala_, or at the apex, as in castor-oil plant (_ricinus_); or they may occur in the course of the raphe, as in blood-root (_sanguinaria_) and _asarabacca_. the funicles of the ovules frequently attain a great length in the seed, and in some magnolias, when the fruit dehisces, they appear as long scarlet cords suspending the seeds outside. the hilum or umbilicus of the seed is usually well marked, as a scar of varying size; in the calabar bean and in some species of mucuna and dolichos it extends along a large portion of the edge of the seed; it frequently exhibits marked colours, being black in the bean, white in many species of phaseolus, &c. the micropyle (fig. 35, m) of the seed may be recognizable by the naked eye, as in the pea and bean tribe, _iris_, &c., or it may be very minute or microscopic. it indicates the true apex of the seed, and is important as marking the point to which the root of the embryo is directed. at the micropyle in the bean is observed a small process of integument, which, when the young plant sprouts, is pushed up like a lid; it is called the _embryotega_. the chalaza (fig. 38, ch) is often of a different colour from the rest of the seed. in the orange (fig. 40) it is of a reddish-brown colour, and is easily recognized at one end of the seed when the integuments are carefully removed. in anatropal seeds the raphe forms a distinct ridge along one side of the seed (fig. 41). the position of the seed as regards the pericarp resembles that of the ovule in the ovary, and the same terms are applied--erect, ascending, pendulous, suspended, curved, &c. these terms have no reference to the mode in which the fruit is attached to the axis. thus the seed may be erect while the fruit itself is pendent, in the ordinary meaning of that term. the part of the seed next the axis or the ventral suture is its face, the opposite side being the back. seeds exhibit great varieties of form. they may be flattened laterally (_compressed_), or from above downwards (_depressed_). they may be round, oval, triangular, polygonal, rolled up like a snail, as in _physostemon_, or coiled up like a snake, as in _ophiocaryon paradoxum_. [illustration: fig. 37.--seed of pine (_pinus_), with a membranous appendage w to the testa, called a wing. fig. 38.--young anatropal seed of the white water-lily (_nymphaea alba_), cut vertically. it is attached to the placenta by the funicle f, cellular prolongations from which form an aril a a. the vessels of the cord are prolonged to the base of the nucellus n by means of the raphe r. the base of the nucellus is indicated by the chalaza ch, while the apex is at the micropyle m. the covering of the seed is marked i. n is the nucellus or perisperm, enclosing the embryo-sac es, in which the endosperm is formed. the embryo e, with its suspensor, is contained in the sac, the radicle pointing to the micropyle m. fig. 39.--arillode a, or false aril, of the spindle-tree (_euonymus_), arising from the micropyle f. fig. 40.--anatropal seed of the orange (_citrus aurantium_) opened to show the chalaza c, which forms a brown spot at one end. fig. 41.--entire anatropal seed of the orange (_citrus aurantium_), with its rugose or wrinkled testa, and the raphe r ramifying in the thickness of the testa on one side.] the endosperm formed in the embryo-sac of angiosperms after fertilization, and found previous to it in gymnosperms, consists of cells containing nitrogenous and starchy or fatty matter, destined for the nutriment of the embryo. it occupies the whole cavity of the embryo-sac, or is formed only at certain portions of it, at the apex, as in _rhinanthus_, at the base, as in _vaccinium_, or in the middle, as in _veronica_. as the endosperm increases in size along with the embryo-sac and the embryo, the substance of the original nucellus of the ovule is gradually absorbed. sometimes, however, as in musaceae, cannaceae, zingiberaceae, no endosperm is formed; the cells of the original nucellus, becoming filled with food-materials for the embryo, are not absorbed, but remain surrounding the embryo-sac with the embryo, and constitute the _perisperm_. again, in other plants, as nymphaeaceae (fig. 38) and piperaceae, both endosperm and perisperm are present. it was from observations on cases such as these that old authors, imagining a resemblance betwixt the plant-ovule and the animal ovum, applied the name _albumen_ to the outer nutrient mass or perisperm, and designated the endosperm as _vitellus_. the term albumen is very generally used as including all the nutrient matter stored up in the seed, but it would be advisable to discard the name as implying a definite chemical substance. there is a large class of plants in which although at first after fertilization a mass of endosperm is formed, yet, as the embryo increases in size, the nutrient matter from the endospermic cells passes out from them, and is absorbed by the cells of the embryo plant. in the mature seed, in such cases, there is no separate mass of tissue containing nutrient food-material apart from the embryo itself. such a seed is said to be _exalbuminous_, as in compositae, cruciferae and most leguminosae (e.g. pea, fig. 35). when either endosperm or perisperm or both are present the seed is said to be _albuminous_. [illustration: fig. 42.--the dicotyledonous embryo of the pea laid open. c, c, the two fleshy cotyledons, or seed-lobes, which remain under ground when the plant sprouts; r, the radicular extremity of the axis whence the root arises; t, the axis (hypocotyl) bearing the young stalk and leaves g (plumule), which lie in a depression of the cotyledons f.] the albumen varies much in its nature and consistence, and furnishes important characters. it may be farinaceous or mealy, consisting chiefly of cells filled with starch, as in cereal grains, where it is abundant; fleshy or cartilaginous, consisting of thicker cells which are still soft, as in the coco-nut, and which sometimes contain oil, as in the oily albumen of _croton_, _ricinus_ and poppy; horny, when the cell-walls are slightly thickened and capable of distension, as in date and coffee; the cell-walls sometimes become greatly thickened, filling up the testa as a hard mass, as in vegetable ivory (_phytelephas_). the albumen may be uniform throughout, or it may present a mottled appearance, as in the nutmeg, the seeds of anonaceae and some palms, where it is called _ruminated_. this mottled appearance is due to a protrusion of a dark lamella of the integument between folded protuberances of albumen. a cavity is sometimes left in the centre which is usually filled with fluid, as in the coco-nut. the relative size of the embryo and of the endosperm varies much. in monocotyledons the embryo is usually small, and the endosperm large, and the same is true in the case of coffee and many other plants amongst dicotyledons. the opposite is the case in other plants, as in the labiatae, plumbaginaceae, &c. the embryo consists of an axis bearing the _cotyledons_ (fig. 42, c), or the first leaves of the plant. to that part of this axis immediately beneath the cotyledons the terms _hypocotyl_, _caulicle_ or _tigellum_ (t) have been applied, and continuous backwards with it is the young root or _radicle_ (r), the descending axis, their point of union being the collar or neck. the terminal growing bud of the axis is called the _plumule_ or _gemmule_ (g), and represents the ascending axis. the radicular extremity points towards the micropyle, while the cotyledonary extremity is pointed towards the base of the ovule or the chalaza. hence, by ascertaining the position of the micropyle and chalaza, the two extremities of the embryo can in general be discovered. it is in many cases difficult to recognize the parts in an embryo; thus in _cuscuta_, the embryo appears as an elongated axis without divisions; and in _caryocar_ the mass of the embryo is made up by the radicular extremity and hypocotyl, in a groove of which the cotyledonary extremity lies embedded (fig. 52). in some monocotyledonous embryos, as in orchidaceae, the embryo is a cellular mass showing no parts. in parasitic plants also which form no chlorophyll, as _orobanche_, _monotropa_, &c., the embryo remains without differentiation, consisting merely of a mass of cells until the ripening of the seed. when the embryo is surrounded by the endosperm on all sides except its radicular extremity it is internal (see figs. 19, 20); when lying outside the endosperm, and only coming into contact with it at certain points, it is external, as in grasses (e.g. wheat, fig. 22). when the embryo follows the direction of the axis of the seed, it is axile or axial (fig. 43); when it is not in the direction of the axis, it becomes abaxile or abaxial. in campylotropal seeds the embryo is curved, and in place of being embedded in endosperm, is frequently external to it, following the concavity of the seed (fig. 44), and becoming peripherical, with the chalaza situated in the curvature of the embryo, as in caryophyllaceae. it has been already stated that the radicle of the embryo is directed to the micropyle, and the cotyledons to the chalaza. in some cases, by the growth of the integuments, the former is turned round so as not to correspond with the apex of the nucellus, and then the embryo has the radicle directed to one side, and is called excentric, as is seen in primulaceae, plantaginaceae and many palms, especially the date. the position of the embryo in different kinds of seeds varies. in an orthotropal seed the embryo is inverted or _antitropal_, the radicle pointing to the apex of the seed, or to the part opposite the hilum. again, in an anatropal seed the embryo is erect or _homotropal_ (fig. 43), the radicle being directed to the base of the seed. in curved or campylotropal seeds the embryo is folded so that its radicular and cotyledonary extremities are approximated, and it becomes _amphitropal_ (fig. 44). in this instance the seed may be exalbuminous, and the embryo may be folded on itself; or albuminous, the embryo surrounding more or less completely the endosperm and being peripherical. according to the mode in which the seed is attached to the pericarp, the radicle may be directed upwards or downwards, or laterally, as regards the ovary. in an orthotropal seed attached to the base of the pericarp it is superior, as also in a suspended anatropal seed. in other anatropal seeds the radicle is inferior. when the seed is horizontal as regards the pericarp, the radicle is either centrifugal, when it points to the outer wall of the ovary; or centripetal, when it points to the axis or inner wall of the ovary. these characters are of value for purposes of classification, as they are often constant in large groups of genera. plants in which there are two cotyledons produced in the embryo are _dicotyledonous_. the two cotyledons thus formed are opposite to each other (figs. 42 and 45), but are not always of the same size. thus, in abronia and other members of the order nyctaginaceae, one of them is smaller than the other (often very small), and in _carapa guianensis_ there appears to be only one, in consequence of the intimate union which takes place between the two. the union between the cotyledonary leaves may continue after the young plant begins to germinate. such embryos have been called _pseudomonocotyledonous_. the texture of the cotyledons varies. they may be thick, as in the pea (fig. 42), exhibiting no traces of venation, with their flat internal surfaces in contact, and their backs more or less convex; or they may be in the form of thin and delicate laminae, flattened on both sides, and having distinct venation, as in _ricinus_, _jatropha_, _euonymus_, &c. the cotyledons usually form the greater part of the mature embryo, and this is remarkably well seen in such exalbuminous seeds as the bean and pea. [illustration: fig. 43.--seed of pansy (_viola tricolor_) cut vertically. the embryo pl is axial, in the midst of fleshy endosperm al. the seed is anatropal, and the embryo is homotropal; the cotyledons co point to the base of the nucellus or chalaza ch, while the radicle, or the other extremity of the embryo, points to the micropyle, close to the hilum h. the hilum or base of the seed, and the chalaza or base of the nucellus are united by means of the raphe r. fig. 44.--seed of the red campion (_lychnis_), cut vertically, showing the peripheral embryo, with its two cotyledons and its radicle. the embryo is curved round the albumen, so that its cotyledons and radicle both come near the hilum (_amphitropal_). fig. 45.--mature dicotyledonous embryo of the almond, with one of the cotyledons removed. r, radicle; t, young stem or caulicle; c, one of the cotyledons left; i, line of insertion of the cotyledon which has been removed; g, plumule. fig. 46.--exalbuminous seed of wallflower (cheiranthus) cut vertically. the radicle r is folded on the edges of the cotyledons c which are accumbent. fig. 47.--transverse section of the seed of the wallflower (_cheiranthus_), showing the radicle r folded on the edges of the accumbent cotyledons c. fig. 48.--transverse section of the seed of the dame's violet (_hesperis_). the radicle r is folded on the back of the cotyledons c, which are said to be incumbent.] cotyledons are usually entire and sessile. but they occasionally become lobed, as in the walnut and the lime; or petiolate, as in _geranium molle_; or auriculate, as in the ash. like leaves in the bud, cotyledons may be either applied directly to each other, or may be folded in various ways. in geranium the cotyledons are twisted and doubled; in convolvulus they are corrugated; and in the potato and in _bunias_, they are spiral,--the same terms being applied as to the foliage leaves. the radicle and cotyledons are either straight or variously curved. thus, in some cruciferous plants, as the wallflower, the cotyledons are applied by their faces, and the radicle (figs. 46, 47) is folded on their edges, so as to be lateral; the cotyledons are here _accumbent_. in others, as _hesperis_, the cotyledons (fig. 48) are applied to each other by their faces, and the radicle, r, is folded on their back, so as to be dorsal, and the cotyledons are _incumbent_. again, the cotyledons are _conduplicate_ when the radicle is dorsal, and enclosed between their folds. in other divisions the radicle is folded in a spiral manner, and the cotyledons follow the same course. in many gymnosperms more than two cotyledons are present, and they are arranged in a whorl. this occurs in coniferae, especially in the pine, fir (fig. 49), spruce and larch, in which six, nine, twelve and even fifteen have been observed. they are linear, and resemble in their form and mode of development the clustered or fasciculated leaves of the larch. plants having numerous cotyledons are termed _polycotyledonous_. in species of _streptocarpus_ the cotyledons are permanent, and act the part of leaves. one of them is frequently largely developed, while the other is small or abortive. [illustration: fig. 49.--polycotylodonous embryo of the pine (_pinus_) beginning to sprout. t, hypocotyl; r, radicle. the cotyledons c are numerous. within the cotyledons the primordial leaves are seen, constituting the plumule or first bud of the plant. fig. 50.--embryo of a species of arrow-grass (_triglochin_), showing a uniform conical mass, with a slit s near the lower part. the cotyledon c envelops the young bud, which protrudes at the slit during germination. the radicle is developed from the lower part of the axis r. fig. 51.--grain of wheat (_triticum_) germinating, showing (b) the cotyledon and (c) the rootlets surrounded by their sheaths (_coleorrhizae_). fig. 52.--embryo of _caryocar_. t, thick hypocotyl, forming nearly the whole mass, becoming narrowed and curved at its extremity, and applied to the groove s. in the figure this narrowed portion is slightly separated from the groove; c, two rudimentary cotyledons.] in those plants in which there is only a single cotyledon in the embryo, hence called _monocotyledonous_, the embryo usually has a cylindrical form more or less rounded at the extremities, or elongated and fusiform, often oblique. the axis is usually very short compared with the cotyledon, which in general encloses the plumule by its lower portion, and exhibits on one side a small slit which indicates the union of the edges of the vaginal or sheathing portion of the leaf (fig. 50). in grasses, by the enlargement of the embryo in a particular direction, the endosperm is pushed on one side, and thus the embryo comes to lie outside at the base of the endosperm (figs. 22, 51). the lamina of the cotyledon is not developed. upon the side of the embryo next the endosperm and enveloping it is a large shield-shaped body, termed the _scutellum_. this is an outgrowth from the base of the cotyledon, enveloping more or less the cotyledon and plumule, in some cases, as in maize, completely investing it; in other cases, as in rice, merely sending small prolongations over its anterior face at the apex. by others this scutellum is considered as the true cotyledon, and the sheathing structure covering the plumule is regarded as a ligule or axillary stipule (see grasses). in many aquatic monocotyledons (e.g. _potamogeton_, _ruppia_ and others) there is a much-developed hypocotyl, which forms the greater part of the embryo and acts as a store of nutriment in germination; these are known as _macropodous_ embryos. a similar case is that of _caryocar_ among dicotyledons, where the swollen hypocotyl occupies most of the embryo (fig. 52). in some grasses, as oats and rice, a projection of cellular tissue is seen upon the side of the embryo opposite to the scutellum, that is, on the anterior side. this has been termed the _epiblast_. it is very large in rice. this by some was considered the rudimentary second cotyledon; but is now generally regarded as an outgrowth of the sheath of the true cotyledon. (a. b. r.) fruit and flower farming. the different sorts of fruits and flowers are dealt with in articles under their own headings, to which reference may be made; and these give the substantial facts as to their cultivation. see also the article horticulture. table i.--_extent of orchards in great britain in each year, 1887 to 1901._ +------+---------++------+---------++------+---------+ | year.| acres. || year.| acres. || year.| acres. | +------+---------++------+---------++------+---------+ | 1887 | 202,234 || 1892 | 208,950 || 1897 | 224,116 | | 1888 | 199,178 || 1893 | 211,664 || 1898 | 226,059 | | 1889 | 199,897 || 1894 | 214,187 || 1899 | 228,603 | | 1890 | 202,305 || 1895 | 218,428 || 1900 | 232,129 | | 1891 | 209,996 || 1896 | 221,254 || 1901 | 234,660 | +------+---------++------+---------++------+---------+ table ii.--_areas under orchards in england, wales and scotland--acres._ +------+----------+--------+---------+--------------+ | year.| england. | wales. |scotland.|great britain.| +------+----------+--------+---------+--------------+ | 1896 | 215,642 | 3677 | 1935 | 221,254 | | 1897 | 218,261 | 3707 | 2148 | 224,116 | | 1898 | 220,220 | 3690 | 2149 | 226,059 | | 1899 | 222,712 | 3666 | 2225 | 228,603 | | 1900 | 226,164 | 3695 | 2270 | 232,129 | | 1901 | 228,580 | 3767 | 2313 | 234,660 | | 1908 | 244,430 | 3577 | 2290 | 250,297 | +------+----------+--------+---------+--------------+ great britain the extent of the fruit industry may be gathered from the figures for the acreage of land under cultivation in orchards and small fruit plantations. the board of agriculture returns concerning the orchard areas of great britain showed a continuous expansion year by year from 199,178 acres in 1888 to 234,660 acres in 1901, as will be learnt from table i. there was, it is true, an exception in 1892, but the decline in that year is explained by the circumstance that since 1891 the agricultural returns have been collected only from holdings of more than one acre, whereas they were previously obtained from all holdings of a quarter of an acre or more. as there are many holdings of less than an acre in extent upon which fruit is grown, and as fruit is largely raised also in suburban and other gardens which do not come into the returns, it may be taken for granted that the actual extent of land devoted to fruit culture exceeds that which is indicated by the official figures. in the board of agriculture returns up to june 1908, 308,000 acres are stated to be devoted to fruit cultivation of all kinds in great britain. table ii. shows that the expansion of the orchard area of great britain is mainly confined to england, for it has slightly decreased in wales and scotland. the acreage officially returned as under orchards is that of arable or grass land which is also used for fruit trees of any kind. conditions of soil and climate determine the irregular distribution of orchards in great britain. the dozen counties which possess the largest extent of orchard land all lie in the south or west of the island. according to the returns for 1908 (excluding small fruit areas) they were the following:-- +----------+--------++-----------+--------++----------+------+ | county. | acres. || county. | acres. || county. |acres.| +----------+--------++-----------+--------++----------+------+ | kent | 32,751 || worcester | 23,653 || salop | 4685 | | devon | 27,200 || gloucester| 20,424 || dorset | 4464 | | hereford | 28,316 || cornwall | 5,415 || monmouth | 3914 | | somerset | 25,279 || middlesex | 5,300 || wilts | 3630 | +----------+--------++-----------+--------++----------+------+ leaving out of consideration the county of kent, which grows a greater variety of fruit than any of the others, the counties of devon, hereford, somerset, worcester and gloucester have an aggregate orchard area of 124,872 acres. these five counties of the west and south-west of england--constituting in one continuous area what is essentially the cider country of great britain--embrace therefore rather less than half of the entire orchard area of the island, while salop, monmouth and wilts have about 300 less than they had a few years ago. five english counties have less than 1000 acres each of orchards, namely, the county of london, and the northern counties of cumberland, westmorland, northumberland and durham. rutland has just over 100 acres. the largest orchard areas in wales are in the two counties adjoining hereford--brecon with 1136 acres and radnor with 727 acres; at the other extreme is anglesey, with a decreasing orchard area of only 22 acres. of the scottish counties, lanark takes the lead with 1285 acres, perth, stirling and haddington following with 684 and 129 acres respectively. ayr and midlothian are the only other counties possessing 100 acres or more of orchards, whilst kincardine, orkney and shetland return no orchard area, and banff, bute, kinross, nairn, peebles, sutherland and wigtown return less than 10 acres each. it may be added that in 1908 jersey returned 1090 acres of orchards, guernsey, &c., 144 acres, and the isle of man, 121 acres; the two last-named places showing a decline as compared with eight years previously. outside the cider counties proper of england, the counties in which orchards for commercial fruit-growing have increased considerably in recent years include berks, buckingham, cambridge, essex, lincoln, middlesex, monmouth, norfolk, oxford, salop, sussex, warwick and wilts. apples are the principal fruit grown in the western and south-western counties, pears also being fairly common. in parts of gloucestershire, however, and in the evesham and pershore districts of worcestershire, plum orchards exist. plums are almost as largely grown as apples in cambridgeshire. large quantities of apples, plums, damsons, cherries, and a fair quantity of pears are grown for the market in kent, whilst apples, plums and pears predominate in middlesex. in many counties damsons are cultivated around fruit plantations to shelter the latter from the wind. of small fruit (currants, gooseberries, strawberries, raspberries, &c.) no return was made of the acreage previous to 1888, in which year it was given as 36,724 acres for great britain. in 1889 it rose to 41,933 acres. later figures are shown in table iii. it will be observed that, owing to corrections made in the enumeration in 1897, a considerable reduction in the area is recorded for that year, and presumably the error then discovered existed in all the preceding returns. the returns for 1907 gave the acreage of small fruit as 82,175 acres, and in 1908 at 84,880 acres--an area more than double that of 1889. table iii.--_areas of small fruit in great britain._ +-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+--------+ | year. | acres. | year. | acres. | year. | acres. | +-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+--------+ | 1890 | 46,234 | 1894 | 68,415 | 1898 | 69,753 | | 1891 | 58,704 | 1895 | 74,547 | 1899 | 71,526 | | 1892 | 62,148 | 1896 | 76,245 | 1900 | 73,780 | | 1893 | 65,487 | 1897 | 69,792 | 1901 | 74,999 | +-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+--------+ table iv.--_areas under small fruit in england, wales and scotland--acres._ +-------+----------+--------+-----------+----------------+ | year. | england. | wales. | scotland. | great britain. | +-------+----------+--------+-----------+----------------+ | 1898 | 63,438 | 1044 | 5271 | 69,753 | | 1899 | 64,867 | 1106 | 5553 | 71,526 | | 1900 | 66,749 | 1109 | 5922 | 73,780 | | 1901 | 67,828 | 1092 | 6079 | 74,999 | | 1908 | 75,750 | 1200 | 7930 | 84,880 | +-------+----------+--------+-----------+----------------+ there has undoubtedly been a considerable expansion, rather than a contraction, of small fruit plantations since 1896. the acreage of small fruit in great britain is about one-third that of the orchards. as may be seen in table iv., it is mainly confined to england, though scotland has over 4000 more acres of small fruit than of orchards. about one-third of the area of small fruit in england belongs to kent alone, that county having returned 24,137 acres in 1908. cambridge now ranks next with 6878 acres, followed by norfolk with 5876 acres, worcestershire with 4852 acres, middlesex with 4163 acres, hants with 3320 acres and essex with 2150 acres. it should be remarked that between 1900 and 1908 cambridgeshire had almost doubled its area of small fruits, from 3740 to 6878 acres; whilst both norfolk and worcestershire in 1908 had larger areas devoted to small fruits than middlesex--in which county there had been a decrease of about 400 acres during the same period. the largest county area of small fruit in wales is 806 acres in denbighshire, and in scotland 2791 acres in perthshire, 2259 acres in lanarkshire, followed by 412 acres in forfarshire. the only counties in great britain which make no return under the head of small fruit are orkney and shetland; and sutherland only gives 2-1/2 acres. it is hardly necessary to say that considerable areas of small fruit, in kitchen gardens and elsewhere, find no place in the official returns, which, however, include small fruit grown between and under orchard trees. gooseberries are largely grown in most small fruit districts. currants are less widely cultivated, but the red currant is more extensively grown than the black, the latter having suffered seriously from the ravages of the black currant mite. kent is the great centre for raspberries and for strawberries, though, in addition, the latter fruit is largely grown in cambridgeshire (2411 acres), hampshire (2327 acres), norfolk (2067 acres) and worcestershire (1273 acres). essex, lincolnshire, cheshire, cornwall and middlesex each has more than 500 acres devoted to strawberry cultivation. the following statement from returns for 1908 shows the area under different kinds of fruit in 1907 and 1908 in great britain, and also whether there had been an increase or decrease: +-----------------+---------+---------+-------------+ | | 1907. | 1908. | increase or | | | | | decrease. | +-----------------+---------+---------+-------------+ | | acres. | acres. | acres. | | small fruit-- | | | | | strawberries | 27,827 | 28,815 | + 988 | | raspberries | 8,878 | 9,323 | + 445 | | currants and | | | | | gooseberries | 25,590 | 26,241 | + 651 | | other kinds | 19,880 | 20,501 | + 621 | | +---------+---------+-------------+ | | 82,175 | 84,880 | +2705 | | +---------+---------+-------------+ | orchards-- | | | | | apples | 172,643 | 172,751 | + 108 | | pears | 8,911 | 9,604 | + 693 | | cherries | 12,027 | 11,868 | - 159 | | plums | 14,901 | 15,683 | + 782 | | other kinds | 41,694 | 40,391 | -1303 | | +---------+---------+-------------+ | | 250,176 | 250,297 | + 121 | +-----------------+---------+---------+-------------+ it appears from the board of agriculture returns that 27,433 acres of small fruit was grown in orchards, so that the total extent of land under fruit cultivation in great britain at the end of 1908 was about 308,000 acres. there are no official returns as to the acreage devoted to orchard cultivation in ireland. the figures relating to small fruit, moreover, extend back only to 1899, when the area under this head was returned as 4809 acres, which became 4359 acres in 1900 and 4877 acres in 1901. in most parts of the country there are districts favourable to the culture of small fruits, such as strawberries, raspberries, gooseberries and currants, and of top fruits, such as apples, pears, plums and damsons. the only localities largely identified with fruit culture as an industry are the drogheda district and the armagh district. in the former all the kinds named are grown except strawberries, the speciality being raspberries, which are marketed in dublin, belfast and liverpool. in the armagh district, again, all the kinds named are grown, but in this case strawberries are the speciality, the markets utilized being richhill, belfast, and those in scotland. in the drogheda district the grower bears the cost of picking, packing and shipping, but he cannot estimate his net returns until his fruit is on the market. around armagh the scottish system prevails--that is, the fruit is sold while growing, the buyer being responsible for the picking and marketing. the amount of fruit imported into the united kingdom has such an important bearing on the possibilities of the industry that the following figures also may be useful: the quantities of apples, pears, plums, cherries and grapes imported in the raw condition into the united kingdom in each year, 1892 to 1901, are shown in table v. previous to 1892 apples only were separately enumerated. up to 1899 inclusive the quantities were given in bushels, but in 1900 a change was made to hundred-weights. this renders the quantities in that and subsequent years not directly comparable with those in earlier years, but the comparison of the values, which are also given in the table, continues to hold good. the figures for 1908 have been added to show the increase that had taken place. in some years the value of imported apples exceeds the aggregate value of the pears, plums, cherries and grapes imported. the extreme values for apples shown in the table are l844,000 in 1893 and l2,079,000 in 1908. grapes rank next to apples in point of value, and over the seventeen years the amount ranged between l394,000 in 1892 and l728,000 in 1908. on the average, the annual outlay on imported pears is slightly in excess of that on plums. the extremes shown are l167,000 in 1895 and l515,000 in 1908. in the case of plums, the smallest outlay tabulated is l166,000 in 1895, whilst the largest is l498,000 in 1897. the amounts expended upon imported cherries varied between l96,000 in 1895 and l308,000 in 1900. in 1900 apricots and peaches, imported raw, previously included with raw plums, were for the first time separately enumerated, the import into the united kingdom for that year amounting to 13,689 cwt., valued at l25,846; in 1901 the quantity was 13,463 cwt. and the value l32,350. the latter rose in 1908 to l60,000. in 1900, also, currants, gooseberries and strawberries, hitherto included in unenumerated raw fruit, were likewise for the first time separately returned. of raw currants the import was 64,462 cwt., valued at l87,170 (1908, l121,850); of raw gooseberries 26,045 cwt., valued at l14,626 (1908, l25,520); and of raw strawberries, 52,225 cwt., valued at l85,949. in 1907 only 44,000 cwt. of strawberries were imported. in 1901 the quantities and values were respectively--currants, 70,402 cwt., l75,308; gooseberries, 21,735 cwt., l11,420; strawberries, 38,604 cwt., l51,290. up to 1899 the imports of tomatoes were included amongst unenumerated raw vegetables, so that the quantity was not separately ascertainable. for 1900 the import of tomatoes was 833,032 cwt., valued at l792,339, which is equivalent to a fraction under 2-1/2d. per lb. for 1901 the quantity was 793,991 cwt., and the value l734,051; for 1906, there were 1,124,700 cwt., valued at l953,475; for 1907, 1,135,499 cwt., valued at l1,020,805; and for 1908, 1,160,283 cwt., valued at l955,983. table v.--_imports of raw apples, pears, plums, cherries and grapes into the united kingdom, 1892 to 1901. quantities in thousands of bushels (thousands of cwt. in 1900 and 1901). values in thousands of pounds sterling._ +------+-------------------------------------------------+ | | quantities. | | year.+---------+--------+--------+-----------+---------+ | | apples. | pears. | plums. | cherries. | grapes. | +------+---------+--------+--------+-----------+---------+ | 1892 | 4515 | 637 | 413 | 217 | 762 | | 1893 | 3460 | 915 | 777 | 346 | 979 | | 1894 | 4969 | 1310 | 777 | 311 | 833 | | 1895 | 3292 | 407 | 401 | 196 | 865 | | 1896 | 6177 | 483 | 560 | 219 | 883 | | 1897 | 4200 | 1052 | 1044 | 312 | 994 | | 1898 | 3459 | 492 | 922 | 402 | 1136 | | 1899 | 3861 | 572 | 558 | 281 | 1158 | | 1900 | 2129* | 477* | 423* | 243* | 593* | | 1901 | 1830* | 349* | 264* | 213* | 680* | +------+---------+--------+--------+-----------+---------+ | values. | +------+---------+--------+--------+-----------+---------+ | 1892 | 1354 | 297 | 200 | 135 | 394 | | 1893 | 844 | 347 | 332 | 195 | 530 | | 1894 | 1389 | 411 | 302 | 167 | 470 | | 1895 | 960 | 167 | 166 | 96 | 487 | | 1896 | 1582 | 207 | 242 | 106 | 443 | | 1897 | 1187 | 378 | 498 | 178 | 495 | | 1898 | 1108 | 222 | 435 | 231 | 550 | | 1899 | 1186 | 266 | 294 | 154 | 588 | | 1900 | 1225 | 367 | 393 | 308 | 595 | | 1901 | 1183 | 296 | 244 | 214 | 695 | | 1908 | 2079 | 515 | 428 | 235 | 728 | +------+---------+--------+--------+-----------+---------+ * thousands of cwts. in 1908 the outlay of the united kingdom upon imported raw fruits, such as can easily be produced at home, was l4,195,654, made up as follows: apples l2,079,703 | plums l428,966 grapes 728,026 | currants 121,852 pears 515,914 | apricots and peaches 60,141 cherries 235,523 | gooseberries 25,529 in addition about l280,000 was spent upon "unenumerated" raw fruit, and l560,000 on nuts other than almonds "used as fruit," which would include walnuts and filberts, both produced at home. it is certain, therefore, that the expenditure on imported fruits, such as are grown within the limits of the united kingdom, exceeds four millions sterling per annum. the remainder of the outlay on imported fruit in 1908, amounting to over l5,000,000, was made up of l2,269,651 for oranges, l471,713 for lemons, l1,769,249 for bananas, and l560,301 for almond-nuts; these cannot be grown on an industrial scale in the british isles. it may be interesting to note the source of some of these imported fruits. the united states and canada send most of the apples, the quantity for 1907 being 1,413,000 cwt. and 1,588,000 cwt. respectively, while australia contributes 280,000 cwt. plums come chiefly from france (200,000 cwt.), followed with 38,000 cwt. from germany and 28,000 cwt. from the netherlands. pears are imported chiefly from france (204,000 cwt.) and belgium (176,000); but the netherlands send 52,000 cwt., and the united states 24,000 cwt. the great bulk of imported tomatoes comes from the canary islands, the quantity in 1907 being 604,692 cwt. the channel islands also sent 223,800 cwt., france 115,500 cwt., spain 169,000 cwt., and portugal a long way behind with 11,700 cwt. most of the strawberries imported come from france (33,800 cwt.) and the netherlands (10,300 cwt.). _fruit-growing in kent._--kent is by far the largest fruit-growing county in england. for centuries that county has been famous for its fruit, and appears to have been the centre for the distribution of trees and grafts throughout the country. the cultivation of fruit land upon farms in many parts of kent has always been an important feature in its agriculture. an excellent description of this noteworthy characteristic of kentish farming is contained in a comprehensive paper on the agriculture of kent by mr charles whitehead,[1] whose remarks, with various additions and modifications, are here reproduced. where the conditions are favourable, especially in east and mid kent, there is a considerable acreage of fruit land attached to each farm, planted with cherry, apple, pear, plum and damson trees, and with bush fruits, or soft fruits as they are sometimes called, including gooseberries, currants, raspberries, either with or without standard trees, and strawberries, and filberts and cob-nuts in mid kent. this acreage has largely increased, and will no doubt continue to increase, as, on the whole, fruit-growing has been profitable and has materially benefited those fortunate enough to have fruit land on their farms. there are also cultivators who grow nothing but fruit. these are principally in the district of east kent, between rochester and canterbury, and in the district of mid kent near london, and they manage their fruit land, as a rule, better than farmers, as they give their undivided attention to it and have more technical knowledge. but there has been great improvement of late in the management of fruit land, especially of cherry and apple orchards, the grass of which is fed off by animals having corn or cake, or the land is well manured. apple trees are grease-banded and sprayed systematically by advanced fruit-growers to prevent or check the attacks of destructive insects. far more attention is being paid to the selection of varieties of apples and pears having colour, size, flavour, keeping qualities, and other attributes to meet the tastes of the public, and to compete with the beautiful fruit that comes from the united states and canada. of the various kinds of apples at present grown in kent mention should be made of mr gladstone, beauty of bath, devonshire quarrenden, lady sudely, yellow ingestre and worcester pearmain. these are dessert apples ready to pick in august and september, and are not stored. for storing, king of the pippins, cox's orange pippin (the best dessert apple in existence), cox's pomona, duchess, favourite, gascoyne's scarlet seedling, court pendu plat, baumann's red reinette, allington pippin, duke of devonshire and blenheim orange. among kitchen apples for selling straight from the trees the most usually planted are lord grosvenor, lord suffield, keswick codlin, early julian, eclinville seedling, pott's seedling, early rivers, grenadier, golden spire, stirling castle and domino. for storing, the cooking sorts favoured now are stone's or loddington, warner's king, wellington, lord derby, queen caroline, tower of glamis, winter queening, lucombe's seedling, bismarck, bramley's seedling, golden noble and lane's prince albert. almost all these will flourish equally as standards, pyramids and bushes. among pears are hessle, clapp's favourite, william's bon chretien, beurre de capiaumont, fertility, beurre riche, chissel, beurre clairgeau, louise bonne of jersey, doyenne du comice and vicar of winkfield. among plums, rivers's early prolific, tsar, belgian purple, black diamond, kentish bush plum, pond's seedling, magnum bonum and victoria are mainly cultivated. the damson known as farleigh prolific, or crittenden's, is most extensively grown throughout the county, and usually yields large crops, which make good prices. as a case in point, purchasers were offering to contract for quantities of this damson at l20 per ton in may of 1899, as the prospects of the yield were unsatisfactory. on the other hand, in one year recently when the crop was abnormally abundant, some of the fruit barely paid the expenses of sending to market. the varieties of cherries most frequently grown are governor wood, knight's early black, frogmore blackheart, black eagle, waterloo, amberheart, bigarreau, napoleon bigarreau and turk. a variety of cherry known as the kentish cherry, of a light red colour and fine subacid flavour, is much grown in kent for drying and cooking purposes. another cherry, similar in colour and quality, which comes rather late, known as the flemish, is also extensively cultivated, as well as the very dark red large morello, used for making cherry brandy. these three varieties are grown extensively as pyramids, and the last-named also on walls and sides of buildings. sometimes the cherry crop is sold by auction to dealers, who pick, pack and consign the fruit to market. large prices are often made, as much as l80 per acre being not uncommon. the crop on a large cherry orchard in mid kent has been sold for more than l100 per acre. where old standard trees have been long neglected and have become overgrown by mosses and lichens, the attempts made to improve them seldom succeed. the introduction of bush fruit trees dwarfed by grafting on the paradise stock has been of much advantage to fruit cultivators, as they come into bearing in two or three years, and are more easily cultivated, pruned, sprayed and picked than standards. many plantations of these bush trees have been formed in kent of apples, pears and plums. half standards and pyramids have also been planted of these fruits, as well as of cherries. bushes of gooseberries and currants, and clumps or stools of raspberry canes, have been planted to a great extent in many parts of the east and mid divisions of kent, but not much in the weald, where apples are principally grown. sometimes fruit bushes are put in alternate rows with bush of standard trees of apple, pear, plum or damson, or they are planted by themselves. the distances apart for planting are generally for cherry and apple trees on grass 30 ft. by 30 ft.; for standard apples and pear trees from 20 ft. to 24 ft. upon arable land, with bush fruit, as gooseberries and currants, under them. these are set 6 ft. by 6 ft. apart, and 5 ft. by 2 ft. for raspberries, and strawberries 2 ft. 6 in. to 3 ft. by 1 ft. 6 in. to 1 ft. 3 in. apart. on some fruit farms bush or dwarf trees--apples, pears, plums--are planted alone, at distances varying from 8 ft. to 10 ft. apart, giving from 485 to 680 bush trees per acre, nothing being grown between them except perhaps strawberries or vegetables during the first two or three years. it is believed that this is the best way of ensuring fruit of high quality and colour. another arrangement consists in putting standard apple or pear trees 30 ft. apart (48 trees per acre), and setting bush trees of apples or pears 15 ft. apart between them; these latter come quickly into bearing, and are removed when the standards are fully grown. occasionally gooseberry or currant bushes, or raspberry canes or strawberry plants, are set between the bush trees, and taken away directly they interfere with the growth of these. half standard apple or plum trees are set triangularly 15 ft. apart, and strawberry plants at a distance of 1-1/2 ft. from plant to plant and 2-1/2 ft. from row to row. or currant or gooseberry bushes are set between the half standards, and strawberry plants between these. these systems involve high farming. the manures used are london manure, where hops are not grown, and bone meal, super-phosphate, rags, shoddy, wool-waste, fish refuse, nitrate of soda, kainit and sulphate of ammonia. where hops are grown the london manure is wanted for them. fruit plantations are always dug by hand with the kent spud. fruit land is never ploughed, as in the united states and canada. the soil is levelled down with the "canterbury" hoe, and then the plantations are kept free from weeds with the ordinary draw or "plate" hoe. the best fruit farmers spray fruit trees regularly in the early spring, and continue until the blossoms come out, with quassia and soft soap and paraffin emulsions, and a very few with paris green only, where there is no under fruit, in order to prevent and check the constant attacks of the various caterpillars and other insect pests. this is a costly and laborious process, but it pays well, as a rule. the fallacy that fruit trees on grass land require no manure, and that the grass may be allowed to grow up to their trunks without any harm, is exploding, and many fruit farmers are well manuring their grass orchards and removing the grass for some distance round the stems, particularly where the trees are young. strawberries are produced in enormous quantities in the northern part of the mid kent district round the crays, and from thence to orpington; also near sandwich, and to some extent near maidstone. raspberry canes have been extensively put in during the last few years, and in some seasons yield good profits. there is a very great and growing demand for all soft fruits for jam-making, and prices are fairly good, taking an average of years, notwithstanding the heavy importations from france, belgium, holland, spain and italy. the extraordinary increase in the national demand for jam and other fruit preserves has been of great benefit to kent fruit producers. the cheapness of duty-free sugar, as compared with sugar paying duty in the united states and other large fruit-producing countries, afforded one of the very few advantages possessed by british cultivators, but the reimposition of the sugar duty in the united kingdom in 1901 has modified the position in this respect. jam factories were established in several parts of kent about 1889 or 1890, but most of them collapsed either from want of capital or from bad management. there are still a few remaining, principally in connexion with large fruit farms. one of these is at swanley, whose energetic owners farm nearly 2000 acres of fruit land in kent. the fruit grown by them that will not make satisfactory prices in a fresh raw state is made into jam, or if time presses it is first made into pulp, and kept until the opportunity comes for making it into jam. in this factory there are fifteen steam-jacketed vats in one row, and six others for candied peel. a season's output on a recent occasion comprised about 3500 tons of jam, 850 tons of candied peel and 750 gross (108,000 bottles) of bottled fruit. a great deal of the fruit preserved is purchased, whilst much of that grown on the farms is sold. a strigging machine is employed, which does as much work as fifty women in taking currants off their strigs or stalks. black currant pulp is stored in casks till winter, when there is time to convert it into jam. strawberries cannot be pulped to advantage, but it is otherwise with raspberries, the pulp of which is largely made. apricots for jam are obtained chiefly from france and spain. there is another flourishing factory near sittingbourne worked on the same lines. it is very advantageous to fruit farmers to have jam factories in connexion with their farms or to have them near, as they can thoroughly grade their fruit, and send only the best to market, thus ensuring a high reputation for its quality. carriage is saved, which is a serious charge, though railway rates from kent to the great manufacturing towns and to scotland are very much less proportionally than those to london, and consequently kent growers send increasing quantities to these distant markets, where prices are better, not being so directly interfered with by imported fruit, which generally finds its way to london. kentish fruit-growers are becoming more particular in picking, grading, packing and storing fruit, as well as in marketing it. a larger quantity of fruit is now carefully stored, and sent to selected markets as it ripens, or when there is an ascertained demand, as it is found that if it is consigned to market direct from the trees there must frequently be forced sales and competition with foreign fruit that is fully matured and in good order. it was customary formerly for kentish growers to consign all their fruit to the london markets; now a good deal of it is sent to manchester, birmingham, liverpool, sheffield, newcastle and other large cities. some is sent even to edinburgh and glasgow. many large growers send no fruit to london now. it is by no means uncommon for growers to sell their fruit crops on the trees or bushes by auction or private treaty, or to contract to supply a stipulated quantity of specified fruit, say of currants, raspberries or strawberries, to jam manufacturers. there is a considerable quantity of fruit, such as grapes, peaches, nectarines, grown under glass, and this kind of culture tends to increase. filberts and cob-nuts are a special product of kent, in the neighbourhood of maidstone principally, and upon the ragstone soils, certain conditions of soil and situation being essential for their profitable production. a part of the filbert and cob-nut crop is picked green in september, as they do well for dessert, though their kernels are not large or firm, and it pays to sell them green, as they weigh more heavily. one grower in mid kent has 100 acres of nuts, and has grown 100 tons in a good year. the average price of late years has been about 5d. per lb., which would make the gross return of the 100 acres amount to l4660. kentish filberts have long been proverbial for their excellence. cobs are larger and look better for dessert, though their flavour is not so fine. they are better croppers, and are now usually planted. this cultivation is not much extending, as it is very long before the trees come into full bearing. the london market is supplied entirely with these nuts from kent, and there is some demand in america for them. filbert and cob trees are most closely pruned. all the year's growth is cut away except the very finest young wood, which the trained eye of the tree-cutter sees at a glance is blossom-bearing. the trees are kept from 5-1/2 to 7 ft. high upon stems from 1-1/2 to 2 ft. high, and are trained so as to form a cup of from 7 to 8 ft. in diameter. there seems no reason to expect any decrease in the acreage of fruit land in kent, and if the improvement in the selection of varieties and in the general management continues it will yet pay. a hundred years ago every one was grubbing fruit land in order that hops might be planted, and for this many acres of splendid cherry orchards were sacrificed. now the disposition is to grub hop plants and substitute apples, plums, or small fruit or cherry trees. _fruit-growing in other districts._--the large fruit plantations in the vicinity of london are to be found mostly in the valley of the thames, around such centres as brentford, isleworth, twickenham, heston, hounslow, cranford and southall. all varieties of orchard trees, but mostly apples, pears, and plums and small fruit, are grown in these districts, the nearness of which to the metropolitan fruit market at covent garden is of course an advantage. some of the orchards are old, and are not managed on modern principles. they contain, moreover, varieties of fruit many of which are out of date and would not be employed in establishing new plantations. in the better-managed grounds the antiquated varieties have been removed, and their places taken by newer and more approved types. in addition to apples, pears, plums, damsons, cherries and quinces as top fruit, currants, gooseberries and raspberries are grown as bottom fruit. strawberries are extensively grown in some of the localities, and in favourable seasons outdoor tomatoes are ripened and marketed. fruit is extensively grown in cambridgeshire and adjacent counties in the east of england. a leading centre is cottenham, where the lower greensand crops out and furnishes one of the best of soils for fruit-culture. in cottenham about a thousand acres are devoted to fruit, and nearly the same acreage to asparagus, which is, however, giving place to fruit. currants, gooseberries and strawberries are the most largely grown, apples, plums and raspberries following. of varieties of plums the victoria is first in favour, and then rivers's early prolific, tsar and gisborne. london is the chief market, as it receives about half the fruit sent away, whilst a considerable quantity goes to manchester, and some is sent to a neighbouring jam factory at histon, where also a moderate acreage of fruit is grown. another fruit-growing centre in cambridgeshire is at willingham, where--besides plums, gooseberries and raspberries--outdoor tomatoes are a feature. greengages are largely grown near cambridge. wisbech is the centre of an extensive fruit district, situated partly in cambridgeshire and partly in norfolk. gooseberries, strawberries and raspberries are largely grown, and as many as 80 tons of the first-named fruit have been sent away from wisbech station in a single day. in the fruit-growing localities of huntingdonshire apples, plums and gooseberries are the most extensively grown, but pears, greengages, cherries, currants, strawberries and raspberries are also cultivated. as illustrating variations in price, it may be mentioned that about the year 1880 the lowest price for gooseberries was l10 per ton, whereas it has since been down to l4. huntingdonshire fruit is sent chiefly to yorkshire, scotland and south wales, but railway freights are high. essex affords a good example of successful fruit-farming at tiptree heath, near kelvedon, where under one management about 260 acres out of a total of 360 are under fruit. the soil, a stiff loam, grows strawberries to perfection, and 165 acres are allotted to this fruit. the other principal crops are 43 acres of raspberries and 30 acres of black currants, besides which there are small areas of red currants, gooseberries, plums, damsons, greengages, cherries, apples, quinces and blackberries. the variety of strawberry known as the small scarlet is a speciality here, and it occupies 55 acres, as it makes the best of jam. the paxton, royal sovereign and noble varieties are also grown. strawberries stand for six or seven years on this farm, and begin to yield well when two years old. a jam factory is worked in conjunction with the fruit farm. pulp is not made except when there is a glut of fruit. perishable fruit intended for whole-fruit preserves is never held over after it is gathered. the picking of strawberries begins at 4 a.m., and the first lot is made into jam by 6 a.m. hampshire, like cambridgeshire and norfolk, are the only counties in which the area of small fruit exceeds that of orchards. the returns for 1908 show that hampshire had 3320 acres of small fruit to 2236 acres of orchards; cambridge had 6878 acres of small fruit to 5221 of orchards; and norfolk had 5876 acres of small fruit against 5188 acres of orchards. compared with twenty years previously, the acreage of small fruit had trebled. this is largely due in hampshire to the extension of strawberry culture in the southampton district, where the industry is in the hands of many small growers, few of whom cultivate more than 20 acres each. sarisbury and botley are the leading parishes in which the business is carried on. most of the strawberry holdings are from half an acre to 5 acres in extent, a few are from 5 to 10 acres, fewer still from 10 to 20 acres and only half-a-dozen over that limit. runners from one-year plants are used for planting, being found more fruitful than those from older plants. peat-moss manure from london stables is much used, but artificial manures are also employed with good results. shortly after flowering the plants are bedded down with straw at the rate of about 25 cwt. per acre. picking begins some ten days earlier than in kent, at a date between 1st june and 15th june. the first week's gathering is sent mostly to london, but subsequently the greater part of the fruit goes to the midlands and to scotland and ireland. in recent years fruit-growing has much increased in south worcestershire, in the vicinity of evesham and pershore. hand-lights are freely used in the market gardens of this district for the protection of cucumbers and vegetable marrows, besides which tomatoes are extensively grown out of doors. at one time the egg plum and the worcester damson were the chief fruit crops, apples and cherries ranking next, pears being grown to only a moderate extent. according to the 1908 returns, however, apples come first, plums second, pears third and cherries fourth. in a prolific season a single tree of the damascene or worcester damson will yield from 400 to 500 lb. of fruit. there is a tendency to grow plum trees in the bush shape, as they are less liable than standards to injury from wind. the manures used include soot, fish guano, blood manure and phosphates--basic slag amongst the last-named. in the pershore district, where there is a jam factory, plums are the chief tree fruit, whilst most of the orchard apples and pears are grown for cider and perry. gooseberries are a feature, as are also strawberries, red and black currants and a few white, but raspberries are little grown. the soil, a strong or medium loam of fair depth, resting on clay, is so well adapted to plums that trees live for fifty years. in order to check the ravages of the winter moth, plum and apple trees are grease-banded at the beginning of october and again at the end of march. the trees are also sprayed when necessary with insecticidal solutions. pruning is done in the autumn. an approved distance apart at which to grow plum trees is 12 ft. by 12 ft. in the earl of coventry's fruit plantation, 40 acres in extent, at croome court, plums and apples are planted alternately, the bottom fruit being black currants, which are less liable to injury from birds than are red currants or gooseberries. details concerning the methods of cultivation of fruit and flowers in various parts of england, the varieties commonly grown, the expenditure involved, and allied matters, will be found in mr w.e. bear's papers in the _journal of the royal agricultural society_ in 1898 and 1899. apart altogether from market gardening and commercial fruit-growing, it must be borne in mind that an enormous business is done in the raising of young fruit-trees every year. hundreds of thousands of apples, pears, plums, cherries, peaches, nectarines and apricots are budded or grafted each year on suitable stocks. they are trained in various ways, and are usually fit for sale the third year. these young trees replace old ones in private and commercial gardens, and are also used to establish new plantations in different parts of the kingdom. _the woburn experimental fruit farm._--the establishment in 1894 of the experimental fruit farm at ridgmont, near woburn, beds, has exercised a healthy influence upon the progress and development of fruit-farming in england. the farm was founded and carried on by the public-spirited enterprise of the duke of bedford and mr spencer u. pickering, the latter acting as director. the main object of the experimental station was "to ascertain facts relative to the culture of fruit, and to increase our knowledge of, and to improve our practice in, this industry." the farm is 20 acres in extent, and occupies a field which up to june 1894 had been used as arable land for the ordinary rotation of farm crops. the soil is a sandy loam 9 or 10 in. deep, resting on a bed of oxford clay. although it contains a large proportion of sand, the land would generally be termed very heavy, and the water often used to stand on it in places for weeks together in a wet season. the tillage to which the ground was subjected for the purposes of the fruit farm much improved its character, and in dry weather it presents as good a tilth as could be desired. chemical analyses of the soil from different parts of the field show such wide differences that it is admitted to be by no means an ideal one for experimental purposes. without entering upon further details, it may be useful to give a summary of the chief results obtained. apples have been grown and treated in a variety of ways, but of the different methods of treatment careless planting, coupled with subsequent neglect, has given the most adverse results, the crop of fruit being not 5% of that from trees grown normally. of the separate deleterious items constituting total neglect, by far the most effective was the growth of weeds on the surface; careless planting, absence of manure, and the omission of trenching all had comparatively little influence on the results. a set of trees that had been carelessly planted and neglected, but subsequently tended in the early part of 1896, were in the autumn of that year only 10% behind their normally-treated neighbours, thus demonstrating that the response to proper attention is prompt. the growth of grass around young apple trees produced a very striking effect, the injury being much greater than that due to weeds. it is possible, however, that in wet years the ill-effects of both grass and weeds would be less than in dry seasons. nevertheless, the grass-grown trees, after five years, were scarcely bigger than when planted, and the actual increase in weight which they showed during that time was about eighteen times smaller than in the case of similar trees in tilled ground. it is believed that one of the main causes of the ill-effects is the large increase in the evaporation of water from the soil which is known to be produced by grass, the trees being thereby made to suffer from drought, with constant deprivation of other nourishment as well. that grass growing round young apple trees is deleterious was a circumstance known to many horticulturists, but the extent to which it interferes with the development of the trees had never before been realized. thousands of pounds are annually thrown away in england through want of knowledge of this fact. yet trees will flourish in grass under certain conditions. whether the dominant factor is the age (or size) of the tree has been investigated by grassing over trees which have hitherto been in the open ground, and the results appear to indicate that the grass is as deleterious to the older trees as it was to the younger ones. again, it appears to have been demonstrated that young apple trees, at all events in certain soils, require but little or no manure in the early stages of their existence, so that in this case also large sums must be annually wasted upon manurial dressings which produce no effects. the experiments have dealt with dwarf trees of bramley, cox and potts, six trees of each variety constituting one investigation. some of the experiments were repeated with stirling castle, and others with standard trees of bramley, cox and lane's prince albert. all were planted in 1894-1895, the dwarfs being then three years old and the standards four. in each experiment the "normal" treatment is altered in some one particular, this normal treatment consisting of planting the trees carefully in trenched ground, and subsequently keeping the surface clean; cutting back after planting, pruning moderately in autumn, and shortening the growths when it appeared necessary in summer; giving in autumn a dressing of mixed mineral manures, and in february one of nitrate of soda, this dressing being probably equivalent to one of 12 tons of dung per acre. in the experiments on branch treatment, the bad effects of omitting to cut the trees back on planting, or to prune them subsequently, is evident chiefly in the straggling and bad shape of the resulting trees, but such trees also are not so vigorous as they should be. the quantity of fruit borne, however, is in excess of the average. the check on the vigour and growth of a tree by cutting or injuring its roots is in marked contrast with the effects of a similar interference with the branches. trees which had been root-pruned each year were in 1898 little more than half as big as the normal trees, whilst those root-pruned every second year were about two-thirds as big as the normal. the crops borne by these trees were nevertheless heavy in proportion to the size of the trees. such frequent root-pruning is not, of course, a practice which should be adopted. it was found that trees which had been carefully lifted every other year and replanted at once experienced no ill-effects from the operation; but in a case where the trees after being lifted had been left in a shed for three days before replanting--which would reproduce to a certain extent the conditions experienced when trees are sent out from a nursery--material injury was suffered, these trees after four years being 28% smaller than similar ones which had not been replanted. sets of trees planted respectively in november, january and march have, on the whole, shown nothing in favour of any of these different times for planting purposes. some doubt is thrown on the accepted view that there is a tendency, at any rate with young apple and pear trees, to fruit in alternate seasons. strawberries of eighty-five different varieties have been experimented with, each variety being represented in 1900 by plants of five different ages, from one to five years. in 1896 and 1898 the crops of fruit were about twice as heavy as in 1897 and 1899, but it has not been found possible to correlate these variations with the meteorological records of the several seasons. taking the average of all the varieties, the relative weights of crop per plant, when these are compared with the two-year-old plants in the same season, are, for the five ages of one to five years, 31, 100, 122, 121 and 134, apparently showing that the bearing power increases rapidly up to two years, less rapidly up to three years, after which age it remains practically constant. the relative average size of the berries shows a deterioration with the age of the plant. the comparative sizes from plants of one to five years old were 115, 100, 96, 91 and 82 respectively. if the money value of the crop is taken to be directly dependent on its total weight, and also on the size of the fruits, the relative values of the crop for the different ages would be 34, 100, 117, 111 and 110, so that, on the ridgmont ground, strawberry plants could be profitably retained up to five years and probably longer. as regards what may be termed the order of merit of different varieties of strawberries, it appears that even small differences in position and treatment cause large variations, not only in the features of the crop generally, but also in the relative behaviour of the different varieties. the relative cropping power of the varieties under apparently similar conditions may often be expressed by a number five or tenfold as great in one case as in the other. a comparison of the relative behaviour of the same varieties in different seasons is attended by similar variations. the varying sensitiveness of different varieties of strawberry plants to small and undefinable differences in circumstances is indeed one of the most important facts brought to light in the experiments. _fruit culture in ireland._--the following figures have been kindly supplied by the irish board of agriculture, and deal with the acreage under fruit culture in ireland up to the end of the year 1907. 1. _orchard fruit_-- statute acres. apples 5829 pears 224 plums 223 damsons 138 other kinds 129 ---- total 6543 2. _small fruit_-- currants, black 234 currants, red and white 159 gooseberries 675 raspberries 374 strawberries 994 mixed fruit 2470 ---- total 4906 it therefore appears that while ireland grows only about one-thirty-third the quantity of apples that england does, it is nevertheless nearly 5000 acres ahead of scotland and about 2000 acres ahead of wales. it grows 41 times fewer pears than england, but still is ahead of scotland and a long way ahead of wales in this fruit. there are 70 times fewer plums grown in ireland than in england, and about the same in scotland, while wales does very little indeed. in small fruit ireland is a long way behind scotland in the culture of strawberries and raspberries, although with currants and gooseberries it is very close. considering the climate, and the fact that there are, according to the latest available returns, over 62,000 holdings above 1 acre but not exceeding 5 acres (having a total of 224,000 acres), it is possible fruit culture may become more prevalent than it has been in the past. _the flower-growing industry._--during the last two or three decades of the 19th century a very marked increase in flower production occurred in england. notably was this the case in the neighbourhood of london, where, within a radius of 15 or 20 m., the fruit crops, which had largely taken the place of garden vegetables, were themselves ousted in turn to satisfy the increasing demand for land for flower cultivation. no flower has entered more largely into the development of the industry than the narcissus or daffodil, of which there are now some 600 varieties. comparatively few of these, however, are grown for market purposes, although all are charming from the amateur point of view. on some flower farms a dozen or more acres are devoted to narcissi alone, the production of bulbs for sale as well as of flowers for market being the object of the growers. in the london district the country in the thames valley west of the metropolis is as largely occupied by flower farms as it is by fruit farms--in fact, the cultivation of flowers is commonly associated with that of fruit. in the vicinity of richmond narcissi are extensively grown, as they also are more to the west in the long ditton district, and likewise around twickenham, isleworth, hounslow, feltham and hampton. roses come more into evidence in the neighbourhood of hounslow, cranford, hillingdon and uxbridge, and in some gardens daffodils and roses occupy alternate rows. in this district also such flowers as herbaceous paeonies, spanish irises, german irises, christmas roses, lilies of the valley, chrysanthemums, foxgloves, hollyhocks, wallflowers, carnations, &c., are extensively grown in many market gardens. south of london is the mitcham country, long noted for its production of lavender. the incessant growth of the lavender plant upon the same land, however, has led to the decline of this industry, which has been largely transferred to districts in the counties of bedford, essex and hertford. at mitcham, nevertheless, mixed flowers are very largely grown for the supply of the metropolis, and one farm alone has nearly 100 acres under flowers and glass-houses. chrysanthemums, asters, iceland poppies, gaillardias, pansies, bedding calceolarias, zonal pelargoniums and other plants are cultivated in immense quantities. at swanley and eynsford, in kent, flowers are extensively cultivated in association with fruit and vegetables. narcissi, chrysanthemums, violets, carnations, campanulas, roses, pansies, irises, sweet peas, and many other flowers are here raised, and disposed of in the form both of cut flowers and of plants. the scilly isles are important as providing the main source of supply of narcissi to the english markets in the early months of the year. this trade arose almost by accident, for it was about the year 1865 that a box of narcissi sent to covent garden market, london, realized l1; and the knowledge of this fact getting abroad, the farmers of the isles began collecting wild bulbs from the fields in order to cultivate them and increase their stocks. some ten years, however, elapsed before the industry promised to become remunerative. in 1885 a bulb and flower association was established to promote the industrial growth of flowers. the exports of flowers in that year reached 65 tons, and they steadily increased until 1893, when they amounted to 450 tons. a slight decline followed, but in 1896 the quantity exported was no less than 514 tons. this would represent upwards of 3-1/2 million bunches of flowers, chiefly narcissi and anemones. rather more than 500 acres are devoted to flower-growing in the isles, by far the greater part of this area being assigned to narcissi, whilst anemones, gladioli, marguerites, arum lilies, spanish irises, pinks and wallflowers are cultivated on a much smaller scale. the great advantage enjoyed by the scilly flower-growers is earliness of production, due to climatic causes; the soil, moreover, is well suited to flower culture and there is an abundance of sunshine. the long journey to london is somewhat of a drawback, in regard to both time and freight, but the earliness of the flowers more than compensates for this. open-air narcissi are usually ready at the beginning of january, and the supply is maintained in different varieties up to the middle or end of may. the narcissus bulbs are usually planted in october, 4 in. by 3 in. apart for the smaller sorts and 6 in. by 4 to 6 in. for the larger. a compost of farmyard manure, seaweed, earth and road scrapings is the usual dressing, but nitrate of soda, guano and bones are also occasionally employed. a better plan, perhaps, is to manure heavily the previous crop, frequently potatoes, no direct manuring then being needed for the bulbs, these not being left in the ground more than two or three years. the expenses of cultivation are heavy, the cost of bulbs alone--of which it requires nearly a quarter of a million of the smaller varieties, or half as many of the largest, to plant an acre--being considerable. the polyanthus varieties of narcissus are likely to continue the most remunerative to the flower-growers of scilly, as they flourish better in these isles than on the mainland. in the district around the wash, in the vicinity of such towns as wisbech, spalding and boston, the industrial culture of bulbs and flowers underwent great expansion in the period between 1880 and 1909. at wisbech one concern alone has a farm of some 900 acres, devoted chiefly to flowers and fruit, the soil being a deep fine alluvium. roses are grown here, one field containing upwards of 100,000 trees. nearly 20 acres are devoted to narcissi, which are grown for the bulbs and also, together with tulips, for cut flowers. carnations are cultivated both in the field and in pots. cut flowers are sent out in large quantities, neatly and effectively packed, the parcel post being mainly employed as a means of distribution. in the neighbourhood of spalding crocuses and snowdrops are less extensively grown than used to be the case. on one farm, however, upwards of 20 acres are devoted to narcissi alone, whilst gladioli, lilies and irises are grown on a smaller scale. around boston narcissi are also extensively grown for the market, both bulbs and cut blooms being sold. the bulbs are planted 3 in. apart in rows, the latter being 9 in. apart, and are allowed to stand from two to four years. the imports of fresh flowers into the united kingdom were not separately shown prior to 1900. in that year, however, their value amounted to l200,585, in 1901 to l225,011, in 1906 to l233,884, in 1907 to l233,641, and in 1908 to l229,802, so that the trade showed a fairly steady condition. from the monthly totals quoted in table vi. it would appear that the trade sinks to its minimum dimensions in the four months july to october inclusive, and that after september the business continually expands up to april, subsequent to which contraction again sets in. about one-half of the trade belongs practically to the three months of february, march and april. table vi.--_values of fresh flowers imported into the united kingdom._ +-----------+----------+----------+----------+ | month. | 1906. | 1907. | 1908. | +-----------+----------+----------+----------+ | january | l31,035 | l18,545 | l29,180 | | february | 34,647 | 25,541 | 30,541 | | march | 50,232 | 42,611 | 35,185 | | april | 30,809 | 50,418 | 42,681 | | may | 22,980 | 21,767 | 23,129 | | june | 17,641 | 18,358 | 16,904 | | july | 3,386 | 4,509 | 3,467 | | august | 1,646 | 1,539 | 1,081 | | september | 852 | 736 | 953 | | october | 4,481 | 3,180 | 4,504 | | november | 17,506 | 15,763 | 15,097 | | december | 18,669 | 30,674 | 27,080 | | +----------+----------+----------+ | total | l233,884 | l233,641 | l229,802 | +-----------+----------+----------+----------+ _hothouse culture of fruit and flowers._--the cultivation of fruit and flowers under glass has increased enormously since about the year 1880, especially in the neighbourhood of london, where large sums of money have been sunk in the erection and equipment of hothouses. in the parish of cheshunt, herts, alone there are upwards of 130 acres covered with glass, and between that place on the north and london on the south extensive areas of land are similarly utilized. in middlesex, in the north, in the districts of edmonton, enfield, ponders end and finchley, and in the west from isleworth to hampton, feltham, hillingdon, sipson and uxbridge, many crops are now cultivated under glass. at erith, swanley, and other places in kent, as also at worthing, in sussex, glass-house culture has much extended. a careful estimate puts the area of industrial hothouses in england at about 1200 acres, but it is probably much more than this. most of the greenhouses are fixtures, but in some parts of the kingdom structures that move on rails and wheels are used, to enable the ground to be prepared in the open for one crop while another is maturing under glass. the leading products are grapes, tomatoes and cucumbers, the last-named two being true fruits from the botanist's point of view, though commercially included with vegetables. to these may be added on the same ground dwarf or french beans, and runner or climbing beans. peaches, nectarines and strawberries are largely grown under glass, and, in private hothouses--from which the produce is used mainly for household consumption, and which are not taken into consideration here--pineapples, figs and other fruit. conservative estimates indicate the average annual yield of hothouse grapes to be about 12 tons per acre and of tomatoes 20 tons. the greater part of the space in the hothouses is assigned to fruit, but whilst some houses are devoted exclusively to flowers, in others, where fruit is the main object, flowers are forced in considerable quantities in winter and early spring. the flowers grown under glass include tulips, hyacinths, primulas, cyclamens, spiraeas, mignonettes, fuchsias, calceolarias, roses, chrysanthemums, daffodils, arum lilies or callas, liliums, azaleas, eucharises, camellias, stephanotis, tuberoses, bouvardias, gardenias, heaths or ericas, poinsettias, lilies of the valley, zonal pelargoniums, tuberous and fibrous rooted begonias, and many others. there is an increasing demand for foliage hothouse plants, such as ferns, palms, crotons, aspidistras, araucarias, dracaenas, india-rubber plants, aralias, grevilleas, &c. berried plants like solanums and aucubas also find a ready sale, while the ornamental kinds of asparagus such as _sprengeri_ and _plumosus_ nanus, are ever in demand for trailing decorations, as well as myrsiphyilum. special mention must be made of the winter or perpetual flowering carnations which are now grown by hundreds of thousands in all parts of the kingdom for decorative work during the winter season. the converse of forcing plants into early blossom is adopted with such an important crop as lily of the valley. during the summer season the crowns are placed in refrigerators with about 2 degrees of frost, and quantities are taken out as required every week and transferred to the greenhouse to develop. tomatoes are grown largely in houses exclusively occupied by them, in which case two and sometimes three crops can be gathered in the year. in the channel islands, where potatoes grown under glass are lifted in april and may, in order to secure the high prices of the early markets, tomato seedlings are planted out from boxes into the ground as quickly as the potatoes are removed, the tomato planter working only a few rows behind the potato digger. the trade in imported tomatoes is so considerable that home growers are well justified in their endeavours to meet the demand more fully with native produce, whether raised under glass or in the open. tomatoes were not separately enumerated in the imports previous to 1900. it has already been stated that in 1900 the raw tomatoes imported amounted to 833,032 cwt., valued at l792,339, and in 1901 to 793,991 cwt., valued at l734,051. from the monthly quantities given in table vii., it would appear that the imports are largest in june, july and august, about one-half of the year's total arriving during those three months. it is too early in june and july for home-grown outdoor tomatoes to enter into competition with the imported product, but home-grown hothouse tomatoes should be qualified to challenge this trade. table vii.--_quantities of tomatoes imported into the united kingdom._ +-----------+-----------+------------+------------+ | month. | 1906. | 1907. | 1908. | +-----------+-----------+------------+------------+ | january | 61,940 | 56,022 | 73,409 | | february | 58,187 | 58,289 | 69,350 | | march | 106,458 | 98,028 | 86,928 | | april | 103,273 | 109,057 | 74,917 | | may | 67,933 | 114,041 | 88,901 | | june | 62,906 | 144,379 | 127,793 | | july | 238,362 | 150,907 | 171,978 | | august | 180,046 | 102,600 | 124,757 | | september | 114,860 | 101,198 | 119,224 | | october | 52,678 | 67,860 | 75,722 | | november | 41,513 | 66,522 | 74,292 | | december | 36,316 | 66,591 | 73,012 | | +-----------+------------+------------+ | total | 1,124,472 | 1,135,494 | 1,160,283 | | +-----------+------------+------------+ | value | l953,475 | l1,135,499 | l1,160,283 | +-----------+-----------+------------+------------+ an important feature of modern flower growing is the production and cultivation of what are known as "hardy herbaceous perennials." some 2000 or 3000 different species and varieties of these are now raised in special nurseries; and during the spring, summer and autumn seasons magnificent displays are to be seen not only in the markets but at the exhibitions in london and at the great provincial shows held throughout the kingdom. the production of many of these perennials is so easy that amateurs in several instances have taken it up as a business hobby; and in some cases, chiefly through advertising in the horticultural press, very lucrative concerns have been established. ornamental flowering trees and shrubs constitute another feature of modern gardening. these are grown and imported by thousands chiefly for their sprays of blossom or foliage, and for planting in large or small gardens, public parks, &c., for landscape effect. indeed there is scarcely an easily grown plant from the northern or southern temperate zones that does not now find a place in the nursery or garden, provided it is sufficiently attractive to sell for its flowers, foliage or appearance. _conditions of the fruit and flower growing industries._--as regards open-air fruit-growing, the outlook for new ventures is perhaps brighter than in the hothouse industry, not--as mr bear has pointed out--because the area of fruit land in england is too small, but because the level of efficiency, from the selection of varieties to the packing and marketing of the produce, is very much lower in the former than in the latter branch of enterprise. in other words, whereas the practice of the majority of hothouse nurserymen is so skilled, so up-to-date, and so entirely under high pressure that a new competitor, however well trained, will find it difficult to rise above mediocrity, the converse is true of open-air fruit-growers. many, and an increasing proportion, of the latter are thoroughly efficient in all branches of their business, and are in possession of plantations of the best market varieties of fruit, well cultivated, pruned and otherwise managed. but the extent of fruit plantations completely up to the mark in relation to varieties and treatment of trees and bushes, and in connexion with which the packing and marketing of the produce are equally satisfactory, is small in proportion to the total fruit area of the country. information concerning the best treatment of fruit trees has spread widely in recent years, and old plantations, as a rule, suffer from the neglect or errors of the past, however skilful their present holders may be. although the majority of professional market fruit-growers may be well up to the standard in skill, there are numerous contributors to the fruit supply who are either ignorant of the best methods of cultivation and marketing or careless in their application. the bad condition of the great majority of farm orchards is notorious, and many landowners, farmers and amateur gardeners who have planted fruit on a more or less extensive scale have mismanaged their undertakings. for these reasons new growers of open-air fruit for market have opportunities of succeeding by means of superiority to the majority of those with whom they will compete, provided that they possess the requisite knowledge, energy and capital. it has been asserted on sound authority that there is no chance of success for fruit-growers except in districts favourable as regards soil, climate and nearness to a railway or a good market; and, even under these conditions, only for men who have had experience in the industry and are prepared to devote their unremitting attention to it. most important is it to a beginner that he should ascertain the varieties of fruit that flourish best in his particular district. certain kinds seem to do well or fairly well in all parts of the country; others, whilst heavy croppers in some localities, are often unsatisfactory in others. as has been intimated, there is probably in england less room for expansion of fruit culture under glass than in the open. the large increase of glass-houses in modern times appears to have brought the supply of hothouse produce, even at greatly reduced prices, at least up to the level of the demand; and as most nurserymen continue to extend their expanse of glass, the prospect for new competitors is not a bright one. moreover, the vast scale upon which some of the growers conduct the hothouse industry puts small producers at a great disadvantage, not only because the extensive producers can grow grapes and other fruit more economically than small growers--with the possible exception of those who do all or nearly all their own work--but also, and still more, because the former have greater advantages in transporting and marketing their fruit. there has, in recent years, been a much greater fall in the prices of hothouse than of open-air fruit, especially under the existing system of distribution, which involves the payment by consumers of 50 to 100% more in prices than growers receive. the best openings for new nurseries are probably not where they are now to be found in large groups, and especially not in the neighbourhood of london, but in suitable spots near the great centres of population in the midlands and the north, or big towns elsewhere not already well supplied with nurseries. by such a selection of a locality the beginner may build up a retail trade in hothouse fruit, or at least a trade with local fruiterers and grocers, thus avoiding railway charges and salesmen's commissions to a great extent, though it may often be advantageous to send certain kinds of produce to a distant market. above all, a man who has no knowledge of the hothouse industry should avoid embarking his capital in it, trusting himself in the hands of a foreman, as experience shows that such a venture usually leads to disaster. some years of training in different nurseries are desirable for any young man who is desirous of becoming a grower of hothouse fruits or flowers. there can be no doubt that flower-growing is greatly extending in england, and that competition among home growers is becoming more severe. foreign supplies of flowers have increased, but not nearly as greatly in proportion as home supplies, and it seems clear that home growers have gained ground in relation to their foreign rivals, except with respect to flowers for the growth of which foreigners have extraordinary natural advantages. there seems some danger of the home culture of the narcissus being over-done, and the florists' chrysanthemum appears to be produced in excess of the demand. again, in the production of violets the warm and sunny south of france has an advantage not possessed by england, whilst holland, likewise for climatic reasons, maintains her hold upon the hyacinth and tulip trade. whether the production of flowers as a whole is gaining ground upon the demand or not is a difficult question to answer. it is true that the prices of flowers have fallen generally; but production, at any rate under glass, has been cheapened, and if a fair profit can be obtained, the fall in prices, without which the existing consumption of flowers would be impossible, does not necessarily imply over-production. there is some difference of opinion among growers upon this point; but nearly all agree that profits are now so small that production on a large scale is necessary to provide a fair income. industrial flower-growing affords such a wide scope for the exercise of superior skill, industry and alertness, that it is not surprising to find some who are engaged in it doing remarkably well to all appearance, while others are struggling on and hardly paying their way. that a man with only a little capital, starting in a small way, has many disadvantages is certain; also, that his chance of saving money and extending his business quickly is much smaller than it was. to the casual looker-on, who knows nothing of the drudgery of the industry, flower-growing seems a delightful method of getting a living. that it is an entrancing pursuit there is no doubt; but it is equally true that it is a very arduous one, requiring careful forethought, ceaseless attention and abundant energy. fortunately for those who might be tempted, without any knowledge of the industry, to embark capital in it, flower-growing, if at all comprehensive in scope, so obviously requires a varied and extensive technical knowledge, combined with good commercial ability, that any one can see that a thorough training is necessary to a man who intends to adopt it as a business, especially if hothouse flowers are to be produced. the market for fruit, and more especially for flowers, is a fickle one, and there is nearly always some uncertainty as to the course of prices. the perishable nature of soft fruit and cut flowers renders the markets very sensitive to anything in the nature of a glut, the occurrence of which is usually attended with disastrous results to producers. foreign competition, moreover, has constantly to be faced, and it is likely to increase rather than diminish. french growers have a great advantage over the open-air cultivators of england, for the climate enables them to get their produce into the markets early in the season, when the highest prices are obtainable. the geographical advantage which france enjoys in being so near to england is, however, considerably discounted by the increasing facilities for cold storage in transit, both by rail and sea. the development of such facilities permits of the retail sale in england of luscious fruit as fresh and attractive as when it was gathered beneath the sunny skies of california. in the case of flowers, fashion is an element not to be ignored. flowers much in request in one season may meet with very little demand in another, and it is difficult for the producer to anticipate the changes which caprice may dictate. even for the same kind of flower the requirements are very uncertain, and the white blossom which is all the rage in one season may be discarded in favour of one of another colour in the next. the sale of fresh flowers for church decoration at christmas and easter has reached enormous dimensions. the irregularity in the date of the festival, however, causes some inconvenience to growers. if it falls very early the great bulk of suitable flowers may not be sufficiently forward for sale, whilst a late easter may find the season too far advanced. the trade in cut flowers, therefore, is generally attended by uncertainty, and often by anxiety. (w. fr.; j. ws.) united states in the united states horticulture and market gardening have now assumed immense proportions. in a country of over 3,000,000 sq. m., stretching from the atlantic to the pacific on the one hand, and from the gulf of mexico to the great northern lakes and the dominion of canada on the other, a great variation of climatic conditions is not unnatural. from a horticultural point of view there are practically two well-defined regions: (1) that to the east of the rocky mountains across to the atlantic, where the climate is more like that of eastern asia than of western europe so far as rainfall, temperature and seasonable conditions are concerned; (2) that to the west of the rockies, known as the pacific coast region, where the climate is somewhat similar to that of western europe. it may be added that in the northern states--in washington, montana, north dakota, minnesota, wisconsin, &c.--the winters are often very severe, while the southern states practically enjoy a temperature somewhat similar to that of the riviera. indeed the range of temperature between the extreme northern states and the extreme southern may vary as much as 120 deg. f. the great aim of american gardeners, therefore, has been to find out or to produce the kinds of fruits, flowers and vegetables that are likely to flourish in different parts of this immense country. _fruit culture._--there is probably no country in the world where so many different kinds of fruit can be grown with advantage to the nation as in the united states. in the temperate regions apples, pears and plums are largely grown, and orchards of these are chiefly to be found in the states of new york, massachusetts, pennsylvania, michigan, missouri, colorado, and also in northern texas, arkansas and n. california. to these may be added cranberries and quinces, which are chiefly grown in the new england states. the quinces are not a crop of first-rate importance, but as much as 800,000 bushels of cranberries are grown each year. the peach orchards are assuming great proportions, and are chiefly to be found in georgia and texas, while grapes are grown throughout the republic from east to west in all favourable localities. oranges, lemons and citrons are more or less extensively grown in florida and california, and in these regions what are known as japanese or "kelsey" plums (forms of _prunus triflora_) are also grown as marketable crops. pomegranates are not yet largely grown, but it is possible their culture will develop in southern texas and louisiana, where the climate is tempered by the waters of the gulf of mexico. tomatoes are grown in most parts of the country so easily that there is frequently a glut; while the strawberry region extends from florida to virginia, pennsylvania and other states--thus securing a natural succession from south to north for the various great market centres. of the fruits mentioned apples are undoubtedly the most important. not only are the american people themselves supplied with fresh fruit, but immense quantities are exported to europe--great britain alone absorbing as much as 1,430,000 cwt. in 1908. the varieties originally grown were of course those taken or introduced from europe by the early settlers. since the middle of the 19th century great changes have been brought about, and the varieties mostly cultivated now are distinctly american. they have been raised by crossing and intercrossing the most suitable european forms with others since imported from russia. in the extreme northern states indeed, where it is essential to have apple trees that will stand the severest winters, the russian varieties crossed with the berry crab of eastern europe (_pyrus baccata_) have produced a race eminently suited to that particular region. the individual fruits are not very large, but the trees are remarkably hardy. farther south larger fruited varieties are grown, and among these may be noted baldwins, newton pippins, spitzenbergs and rhode island greening. apple orchards are numerous in the state of new york, where it is estimated that over 100,000 acres are devoted to them. in the hilly regions of missouri, arkansas and colorado there are also great plantations of apples. the trees, however, are grown on different principles from those in new york state. in the latter state apple trees with ordinary care live to more than 100 years of age and produce great crops; in the other states, however, an apple tree is said to be middle-aged at 20, decrepit at 30 and practically useless at 40 years of age. they possess the advantage, however, of bearing early and heavily. until the introduction of the cold-storage system, about the year 1880, america could hardly be regarded as a commercial fruit-growing country. since then, however, owing to the great improvements made in railway refrigerating vans and storage houses, immense quantities of fruit can be despatched in good condition to any part of the world; or they can be kept at home in safety until such time as the markets of chicago, new york, boston, baltimore, philadelphia, &c., are considered favourable for their reception. apple trees are planted at distances varying from 25 ft. to 30 ft. apart in the middle western states, to 40 ft. to 50 ft. apart in new york state. here and there, however, in some of the very best orchards the trees are planted 60 ft. apart every way. each tree thus has a chance to develop to its utmost limits, and as air and light reach it better, a far larger fruit-bearing surface is secured. actual experience has shown that trees planted at 60 ft. apart--about 28 to the acre--produce more fruit by 43 bushels than trees at 30 ft. apart--i.e. about 48 to the acre. until recent years pruning as known to english and french gardeners was practically unknown. there was indeed no great necessity for it, as the trees, not being cramped for space, threw their branches outwards and upwards, and thus rarely become overcrowded. when practised, however, the operation could scarcely be called pruning; lopping or trimming would be more accurate descriptions. apple orchards are not immune from insect pests and fungoid diseases, and an enormous business is now done in spraying machines and various insecticides. it pays to spray the trees, and figures have been given to show that orchards that have been sprayed four times have produced an average income of l211 per acre against l103 per acre from unsprayed orchards. the spring frosts are also troublesome, and in the colorado and other orchards the process known as "smudging" is now adopted to save the crops. this consists in placing 20 or 30, or even more, iron or tin pots to an acre, each pot containing wooden chips soaked in tar (or pitch) mixed with kerosene. whenever the thermometer shows 3 or 4 degrees of frost the smudge-pots are lighted. a dense white smoke then arises and is diffused throughout the orchards, enveloping the blossoming heads of the trees in a dense cloud. this prevents the frost from killing the tender pistils in the blossoms, and when several smudge-pots are alight at the same time the temperature of the orchard is raised two or three degrees. this work has generally to be done between 3 and 5 a.m., and the growers naturally have an anxious time until all danger is over. the failure to attend to smudging, even on one occasion, may result in the loss of the entire crop of plums, apples or pears. next to apples perhaps peaches are the most important fruit crop. the industry is chiefly carried on in georgia, texas and s. carolina, and on a smaller scale in some of the adjoining states. peaches thus flourish in regions that are quite unsuitable for apples or pears. in many orchards in georgia, where over 3,000,000 acres have been planted, there are as many as 100,000 peach trees; while some of the large fruit companies grow as many as 365,000. in one place in west virginia there is, however, a peach orchard containing 175,000 trees, and in missouri another company has 3 sq. m. devoted to peach culture. as a rule the crops do well. sometimes, however, a disease known as the "yellows" makes sad havoc amongst them, and scarcely a fruit is picked in an orchard which early in the season gave promise of a magnificent crop. plums are an important crop in many states. besides the european varieties and those that have been raised by crossing with american forms, there is now a growing trade done in japanese plums. the largest of these is popularly known as "kelseys," named after john kelsey, who raised the first fruit in 1876 from trees brought to california in 1870. sometimes the fruits are 3 in. in diameter, and like most of the japanese varieties are more heart-shaped and pointed than plums of european origin. one apparent drawback to the kelsey plum is its irregularity in ripening. it has been known in some years to be quite ripe in june, while in others the fruits are still green in october. pears are much grown in such states as massachusetts, new york, pennsylvania, missouri and california; while bush fruits like currants, gooseberries and raspberries find large spaces devoted in most of the middle and northern states. naturally a good deal of crossing and intercrossing has taken place amongst the european and american forms of these fruits, but so far as gooseberries are concerned no great advance seems to have been made in securing varieties capable of resisting the devastating gooseberry mildew. other fruits of more or less commercial value are oranges, lemons and citrons, chiefly in florida. lemons are practically a necessity to the american people, owing to the heat of the summers, when cool and refreshing drinks with an agreeable acidulous taste are in great demand. the pomelo (grape-fruit) is a kind of lemon with a thicker rind and a more acid flavour. at one time its culture was confined to florida, but of recent years it has found its way into californian orchards. notwithstanding the prevailing mildness of the climate in both california and florida, the crops of oranges, lemons, citrons, &c., are sometimes severely injured by frosts when in blossom. other fruits likely to be heard of in the future are the kaki or persimmon, the loquat, which is already grown in louisiana, as well as the pomegranate. great aid and encouragement are given by the government to the progress of american fruit-growing, and by the experiments that are being constantly carried out and tabulated at cornell university and by the u.s.a. department of agriculture. _flower culture._--so far as flowers are concerned there appears to be little difference between the kinds of plants grown in the united states and in england, france, belgium, germany, holland, &c. indeed there is a great interchange of new varieties of plants between europe and america, and modifications in systems of culture are being gradually introduced from one side of the atlantic to the other. the building of greenhouses for commercial purposes is perhaps on a somewhat different scale from that in england, but there are probably no extensive areas of glass such as are to be seen north of london from enfield highway to broxburne. hot water apparatus differs merely in detail, although most of the boilers used resemble those on the continent of europe rather than in england. great business is done in bulbs--mostly imported from holland--stove and greenhouse plants, hardy perennials, orchids, ferns of the "fancy" and "dagger" types of nephrolepis, and in carnations and roses. amongst the latter thousands of such varieties as beauty, liberty, killarney, richmond and bride are grown, and realize good prices as a rule in the markets. carnations of the winter-flowering or "perpetual" type have long been grown in america, and enormous prices have been given for individual plants on certain occasions, rivalling the fancy prices paid in england for certain orchids. the american system of carnation-growing has quite captivated english cultivators, and new varieties are being constantly raised in both countries. chrysanthemums are another great feature of american florists, and sometimes during the winter season a speculative grower will send a living specimen to one of the london exhibitions in the hope of booking large orders for cuttings of it later on. sweet peas, dahlias, lilies of the valley, arum lilies and indeed every flower that is popular in england is equally popular in america, and consequently is largely grown. _vegetables._--so far as these are concerned, potatoes, cabbages, cauliflowers, beans of all kinds, cucumbers, tomatoes (already referred to under fruits), musk-melons, lettuces, radishes, endives, carrots, &c.; are naturally grown in great quantities, not only in the open air, but also under glass. the french system of intensive cultivation as practised on hot beds of manure round paris is practically unknown at present. in the southern states there would be no necessity to practise it, but in the northern ones it is likely to attract attention. (j. ws.) footnote: [1] _jour. roy. agric. soc._, 1899. frumentius (c. 300-c. 360), the founder of the abyssinian church, traditionally identified in abyssinian literature with abba salama or father of peace (but see ethiopia), was a native of phoenicia. according to the 4th-century historian rufinus (x. 9), who gives aedesius himself as his authority, a certain tyrian, meropius, accompanied by his kinsmen frumentius and aedesius, set out on an expedition to "india," but fell into the hands of ethiopians on the shore of the red sea and, with his ship's crew, was put to death. the two young men were taken to the king at axum, where they were well treated and in time obtained great influence. with the help of christian merchants who visited the country frumentius gave christianity a firm footing, which was strengthened when in 326 he was consecrated bishop by athanasius of alexandria, who in his _epistola ad constantinum_ mentions the consecration, and gives some details of the history of frumentius's mission. later witnesses speak of his fidelity to the homoousian during the arian controversies. aedesius returned to tyre, where he was ordained presbyter.