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    "source_title": "Encyclopaedia Britannica (1911)",
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    "chunk_id": "1911:flamel:274c0f434308",
    "title": "FLAMEL",
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    "verified_text": "flamel, nicolas (c. 1330-1418), reputed french alchemist and scrivener to the university of paris, was born in paris or pontoise about 1330, and died in paris in 1418, bequeathing the bulk of his property to the church of saint-jacques-la-boucherie, where he was buried. during his life he contributed freely to charitable and religious purposes from the considerable wealth he amassed either by the practice of his craft, or, as some surmise without definite proof, by fortunate speculation or money lending, or, as legend has it, by alchemy. according to a document purporting to be written by himself in 1413 (printed in waite's _lives of the alchemystical philosophers_, london, 1888), there fell into his hands in 1357, at the cost of two florins, a book on alchemy by abraham the jew, which taught in plain words the transmutation of metals. it did not, however, explain the _materia prima_, but merely figured or depicted it, and for more than 20 years flamel strove in vain to find out the secret. then, returning from a journey to spain, he fell in with a christian jew, named canches, who gave him the explanation, and after three more years' work he succeeded in preparing the _materia prima_, thus being enabled in 1382 to transmute mercury into both silver and gold. but this fantastic story was disposed of by the facts, derived from parish records, set forth in vilain's _essai sur l'histoire de saint-jacques-la-boucherie_, 1758, and his _histoire critique de nicolas flamel et de pernelle sa femme, recueillie d'actes anciens qui justifient l'origine et la mediocrite de leur fortune contre les imputations des alchimistes_, 1761. a book on alchemy in the paris bibliotheque, _le tresor de philosophie_, professing to be written and illuminated by flamel with his own hand, is of very doubtful authenticity, and other treatises bearing his name, such as the _sommaire philosophique de nicolas flamel_, published in 1561 in a collection of alchemist treatises entitled _transformation metallique_, are certainly spurious. flamen (from _flare_, \"to blow up\" the altar fire), a roman sacrificial priest. the flamens were subject to the pontifex (q.v.) maximus, and were consecrated to the service of some particular deity. the highest in rank were the _flamen dialis_, _flamen martialis_ and _flamen quirinalis_, who were always selected from among the patricians. their institution is generally ascribed to numa. when the number of flamens was raised from three to fifteen, those already mentioned were entitled _majores_, in contradistinction to the other twelve, who were called _minores_, as connected with less important deities, and were chosen from the plebs. towards the end of the republic the number of the lesser flamens seems to have diminished. the flamens were held to be elected for life, but they might be compelled to resign office for neglect of duty, or on the occurrence of some ill-omened event (such as the cap falling off the head) during the performance of their rites. the characteristic dress of the flamens in general was the _apex_, a white conical cap, the _laena_ or mantle, and a laurel wreath. the official insignia of the _flamen dialis_ (of jupiter), the highest of these priests, were the white cap (_pileus, albogalerus_), at the top of which was an olive branch and a woollen thread; the _laena_, a thick woollen _toga praetexta_ woven by his wife; the sacrificial knife; and a rod to keep the people from him when on his way to offer sacrifice. he was never allowed to appear without these emblems of office, every day being considered a holy day for him. by virtue of his office he was entitled to a seat in the senate and a curule chair. the sight of fetters being forbidden him, his toga was not allowed to be tied in a knot but was fastened by means of clasps, and the only kind of ring permitted to be worn on his finger was a broken one. if a person in fetters took refuge in his house he was immediately loosed from his bonds; and if a criminal on his way to the scene of his punishment met him and threw himself at his feet he was respited for that day. the _flamen dialis_ was not allowed to leave the city for a single night, to ride or even touch a horse (a restriction which incapacitated him for the consulship), to swear an oath, to look at an army, to touch anything unclean, or to look upon people working. his marriage, which was obliged to be performed with the ceremonies of _confarreatio_ (q.v.), was dissoluble only by death, and on the death of his wife (called _flaminica dialis_) he was obliged to resign his office. the _flaminica dialis_ assisted her husband at the sacrifices and other religious duties which he performed. she wore long woollen robes; a veil and a kerchief for the head, her hair being plaited up with a purple band in a conical form (_tutulus_); and shoes made of the leather of sacrificed animals; like her husband, she carried the sacrificial knife. the main duty of the flamens was the offering of daily sacrifices; on the 1st of october the three major flamens drove to the capitol and sacrificed to _fides publica_ (the honour of the people). some of the municipal towns in italy had flamens as well as rome. we may mention, as distinct from the above, the _flamen curialis_, who assisted the curio, the priest who attended to the religious affairs of each curia (q.v.); the flamens of various sacerdotal corporations, such as the arval brothers; the _flamen augustalis_, who superintended the worship of the emperor in the provinces. see marquardt, _romische staatsverwaltung_, iii. (1885), pp. 326-336, 473; h. dessau, in _ephemeris epigraphica_, iii. (1877); and the exhaustive article by c. jullian in daremberg and saglio, _dictionnaire des antiquites_. flamingo (port. _flamingo_, span. _flamenco_), one of the tallest and most beautiful birds, conspicuous for the bright flame-coloured or scarlet patch upon its wings, and long known by its classical name _phoenicopterus_, as an inhabitant of most of the countries bordering the mediterranean sea. flamingos have a very wide distribution, and the sole genus comprises only a few species. _ph. roseus_ or _antiquorum_, white, with a rosy tinge above, and with scarlet wing-coverts, while the remiges are black (as in all species), ranges from the cape verde islands to india and ceylon, north as far as lake baikal; southwards through africa and madagascar, eventually as _p. minor_. _p. ruber_, entirely light vermilion, extends from florida to para and the galapagos; _p. chilensis_ s. _ignipalliatus_, from peru to patagonia, more resembles the classical species; while _p. andinus_, the tallest of all, which lacks the hallux, inhabits the salt lakes of the elevated desert of atacama, whence it extends into chile and argentina. fossil remains of flamingos have been described from the lower miocene of france as _p. croizeti_, and from the pliocene of oregon. from the mid-miocene to the oligocene of france are known several species of _palaelodus_, _elornis_ and _agnopterus_, which have relatively shorter legs, longer toes and a complicated hypotarsus, and represent an earlier family, less specialized although not directly ancestral to the flamingos. _palaelodidae_ and _phoenicopteridae_ together form the larger group phoenicopteri. these are in many respects exactly intermediate between anserine and stork-like birds, so much so in fact that t.h. huxley preferred to keep them separate as _amphimorphae_. however, if we carefully sift their characters, the flamingos obviously reveal themselves as much nearer related to the _ciconiae_, especially to _platalea_ and _ibis_, than to the anseres. this is the opinion arrived at by w.f.r. weldon, m. fuerbringer and gadow, while others prefer the goose-like voice and the webbed toes as reliable characters. (for a detailed analysis of this instructive question see bronn's _thierreich_, aves syst. p. 146.) [illustration: the flamingo.] the food of the flamingo seems to consist chiefly of small aquatic invertebrate animals which live in the mud of lagoons, for instance mollusca, but also of confervae and other low salt-water algae. whilst feeding, the bird wades about, stirs up the mud with its feet, and, reversing the ordinary position of its head so as to hold the crown downwards and to look backwards, sifts the mud through its bill. this is abruptly bent down in the middle, as if broken; the upper jaw is rather flat and narrow, while the lower jaw is very roomy and furnished with numerous lamellae, which, together with the thick and large tongue, act like a sieve, an arrangement enhanced by the considerable movability of the upper jaw. then the bird erects its long neck to swallow the selected food. when flying, flamingos present a striking and beautiful sight, with legs and neck stretched out straight, looking like white and rosy or scarlet crosses with black arms. not less fascinating is a flock of these sociable birds when at rest, standing on one or both legs, with their long necks twisted or coiled upon the body in any conceivable position. the nest is likewise peculiar. it is built of mud, a somewhat conical structure rising above the water according to the depth, of which the cone is from a few inches to 2 ft. in height. if, as often happens, the water-level sinks, the nests stand out higher. on the top is a shallow cup for the reception of the one or two eggs, which have a bluish-white shell with chalky incrustation. of course the hen sits with her legs doubled up under her, as does any other long-legged bird. it seems strange that many ornithologists should have given credence to w. dampier's statement of the mode of incubation (_new voyage round the world_, ed. 2, i. p. 71, london, 1699): \"and when they lay their eggs, or hatch them, they stand all the while, not on the hillock, but close by it with their legs on the ground and in the water, resting themselves against the hillock, and covering the hollow nest upon it with their rumps,\" &c. p.s. pallas (_zoograph. rosso-asiatica_, ii. p. 208) tried to improve upon this by stating that the standing bird leans upon the nest with its breast! the young, which are hatched after about four weeks' incubation, look very different from the adult. the small bill is still quite straight and the legs are short. the whole body is covered with a thick coat of short nestling feathers, pure white in colour. these _neossoptiles_ or first feathers bear no resemblance to those of the anseriform birds, but agree in detail with those of spoonbills, the young of which the little flamingos resemble to a striking extent, but they leave the nest soon after their birth to shift for themselves like ducks and geese. 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