FEARNE

fearne, charles (1742-1794), english jurist, son of charles fearne, judge-advocate of the admiralty, was born in london in 1742, and was educated at westminster school. he adopted the legal profession, but, though well fitted by his talents to succeed as a barrister, he neglected his profession and devoted most of his attention and his patrimony to the prosecution of scientific experiments, with the vain hope of achieving discoveries which would reward him for his pains and expense. he died in 1794, leaving his widow and family in necessitous circumstances. his _essay on the learning of contingent remainders and executory devises_, the work which has made his reputation as a legal authority, and which has passed through numerous editions, was called forth by a decision of lord mansfield in the case of _perrin v. blake_, and had the effect of reversing that decision. a volume entitled _fearne's posthumous works_ was published by subscription in 1797 for the benefit of his widow. feasts and festivals. a festival or feast[1] is a day or series of days specially and publicly set apart for religious observances. whether its occurrence be casual or periodic, whether its ritual be grave or gay, carnal as the orgies of baal and astarte, or spiritual as the worship of a puritan sabbath, it is to be regarded as a festival or "holy day" as long as it is professedly held in the name of religion. to trace the festivals of the world through all their variations would be to trace the entire history of human religion and human civilization. where no religion is, there can of course be no feasts; and without civilization any attempt at festival-keeping must necessarily be fitful and comparatively futile. but as religion develops, festivals develop with it, and assume their distinctive character; and an advancing civilization, at least in its earlier stages, will generally be found to increase their number, enrich their ritual, fix more precisely the time and order of their recurrence, and widen the area of their observance. some uncivilized tribes, such as the juangs of bengal, the fuegians and the andamanese, have been described as having no word for god, no idea of a future state, and consequently no religious ceremonies of any kind whatever. but such cases, doubtful at the best, are confessedly exceptional. in the vast majority of instances observed and recorded, the religiosity of the savage is conspicuous. even when incapable of higher manifestations, it can at least take the form of reverence for the dead; the grave-heap can become an altar on which offerings of food for the departed may be placed, and where in acts of public and private worship the gifts of survivors may be accompanied with praises and with prayers. that the custom of ghost-propitiation by some sort of sacrifice is even now very widely diffused among the lower races at least, and that there are also many curious "survivals" of such a habit to be traced among highly civilized modern nations, has been abundantly shown of late by numerous collectors of folk-lore and students of sociology; and indications of the same phenomena can be readily pointed out in the rig-veda, the zend-avesta and the pentateuch, as well as in the known usages of the ancient egyptians, greeks and romans.[2] in many cases the ceremonial observed is of the simplest; but it ever tends to become more elaborate; and above all it calls for repetition, and repetition, too, at regular intervals. whenever this last demand has made itself felt, a calendar begins to take shape. the simplest calendar is obviously the lunar. "the naga tribes of assam celebrate their funeral feasts month by month, laying food and drink on the graves of the departed." but it soon comes to be combined with the solar. thus the karens, "while habitually making oblations, have also annual feasts for the dead, at which they ask the spirits to eat and drink." the natives of the mexican valley in november lay animals, edibles and flowers on the graves of their dead relatives and friends. the common people in china have a similar custom on the arrival of the winter solstice. the ancient peruvians had the custom of periodically assembling the embalmed bodies of their dead emperors in the great square of the capital to be feasted in company with the people. the athenians had their annual [greek: nekusia] or [greek: nemeseia] and the romans their _feralia_ and _lemuralia_. the egyptians observed their three "festivals of the seasons," twelve "festivals of the month," and twelve "festivals of the half month," in honour of their dead. the parsees, too, were required to render their afringans (blessings which were to be recited over a meal to which an angel or the spirit of a deceased person was invited) at each of the six seasons of the year, and also on certain other days.[3] in the majority of recorded instances, the religious feeling of the savage has been found to express itself in other forms besides that of reverence towards the dead. the oldest literatures of the world, at all events, whether aryan or semitic, embody a religion of a much higher type than ancestor worship. the hymns of the rig-veda, for example, while not without traces of the other, yet indicate chiefly a worship of the powers of nature, connected with the regular recurrence of the seasons. thus in iv. 57 we have a hymn designed for use at the commencement of the ploughing time;[4] and in the _aitareya-brahmana_, the earliest treatise on hindu ceremonial, we already find a complete series of sattras or sacrificial sessions exactly following the course of the solar year. they are divided into two distinct sections, each consisting of six months of thirty days each. the sacrifices are allowed to commence only at certain lucky constellations and in certain months. so, for instance, as a rule, no great sacrifice can commence during the sun's southern progress. the great sacrifices generally take place in spring, in the months of april and may.[5] in the parsee scriptures[6] the year is divided into six seasons or gahanbars of two months each, concluding with february, the season at which "great expiatory sacrifices were offered for the growth of the whole creation in the last two months of the year." we have no means of knowing precisely what were the arrangements of the phoenician calendar, but it is generally admitted that the worship was solar, the principal festivals taking place in spring and in autumn. among the most characteristic celebrations of the egyptians were those which took place at the [greek: aphanismos] or disappearance of osiris in october or november, at the search for his remains, and their discovery about the winter solstice, and at the date of his supposed entrance into the moon at the beginning of spring. the phrygian festivals were also arranged on the theory that the deity was asleep during the winter and awake during the summer; in the autumn they celebrated his retiring to rest, and in spring with mirth and revelry they roused him from his slumbers.[7] the seasonal character of the teutonic ostern, the celtic beltein and the scandinavian yule is obvious. nor was the habit of observing such festivals peculiar to the aryan or the semitic race. the mexicans, who were remarkable for the perfection of their calendar, in addition to this had an elaborate system of movable and immovable feasts distributed over the entire year; the principal festivals, however, in honour of their chief gods, tezcatlipoca, huitzilopochtli and tlaloc, were held in may, june and december. still more plainly connected with the revolutions of the seasons was the public worship of the ancient peruvians, who, besides the ordinary feast at each new moon, observed four solar festivals annually. of these the most important was the yntip-raymi (sun-feast), which, preceded by a three days' fast, began with the summer solstice, and lasted for nine days. its ceremonies have been often described. a similar but less important festival was held at the winter solstice. the cusqui-raymi, held after seedtime, as the maize began to appear, was celebrated with sacrifices and banquets, music and dancing. a fourth great festival, called citua, held on the first new moon after the autumnal equinox, was preceded by a strict fast and special observances intended for purposes of purification and expiation, after which the festivities lasted until the moon entered her second quarter. _greek festivals._--perhaps the annual attic festival in honour of erechtheus alluded to in the _iliad_ (ii. 550) ought to be regarded as an instance of ancestor-worship; but the seasonal character of the [greek: heorte] or new-moon feast in _od._ xx. 156, and of the [greek: thalusia] or harvest-festival in _il._ ix. 533, is generally acknowledged. the older homeric poems, however, give no such express indications of a fully-developed system of festivals as are to be met with in the so-called "homeric" hymns, in the _works and days_ of hesiod, in the pages of herodotus, and so abundantly in most authors of the subsequent period; and it is manifest that the calendar of homer or even of herodotus must have been a much simpler matter than that of the tarentines, for example, came to be, of whom we are told by strabo that their holidays were in excess of their working days. each demos of ancient greece during the historical period had its own local festivals ([greek: heortai demotikai]), often largely attended and splendidly solemnized, the usages of which, though essentially alike, differed very considerably in details. these details have in many cases been wholly lost, and in others have reached us only in a very fragmentary state. but with regard to the athenian calendar, the most interesting of all, our means of information are fortunately very copious. it included some 50 or 60 days on which all business, and especially the administration of justice, was by order of the magistrates suspended. among these [greek: hieromeniai] were included--in gamelion (january), the _lenaea_ or festival of vats in honour of dionysus; in anthesterion (february), the _anthesteria_, also in honour of dionysus, lasting three days (pithoigia, choes and chytri); the _diasia_ in honour of zeus, and the lesser _eleusinia_; in elaphebolion (march), the _pandia_ (? of zeus), the _elaphebolia_ of artemis, and the greater _dionysia_; in munychion, the _munychia_ of artemis as the moon goddess ([greek: mounuchia]) and the _delphinia_ of apollo; in thargelion (may), the _thargelia_ of apollo and the _plynteria_ and _callynteria_ of athena; in scirophorion (june), the _diipolia_ of zeus and the _scirophoria_ of athena; in hekatombaion, hecatombs were offered to apollo the summer-god, and the _cronia_ of cronus and the _panathenaea_ of athena were held; in metageitnion, the _metageitnia_ of apollo; in boedromion, the _boedromia_ of apollo the helper,[8] the _nekusia_ or _nemeseia_ (the festival of the dead), and the greater _eleusinia_; in pyanepsion, the _pyanepsia_ of apollo, the _oschophoria_ of dionysus (probably), the _chalkeia_ or _athenaea_ of athena, the _thesmophoria_ of demeter, and the _apaturia_; in maimacterion, the _maimacteria_ of zeus; and in poseideon (december), the lesser _dionysia_. of these some are commemorative of historical events, and one at least may perhaps be regarded as a relic of ancestor-worship; but the great majority are nature-festivals, associating themselves in the manner that has already been indicated with the phenomena of the seasons, the equinoxes and the solstices.[9] in addition to their numerous public festivals, the greeks held various family celebrations, also called [greek: heortai], in connexion with weddings, births and similar domestic occurrences. for the great national [greek: panegureis]--olympian, pythian, nemean and isthmian--see the article games, classical. _roman festivals._--for the purpose of holding _comitia_ and administering justice, the days of the roman year were regarded as being either _dies fasti_ or _dies nefasti_--the _dies fasti_ being the days on which it was lawful for the praetors to administer justice in the public courts, while on the _dies nefasti_ neither courts of justice nor meetings of _comitia_ were allowed to be held. some days were _fasti_ during one portion and _nefasti_ during another; these were called _dies intercisi_. for the purposes of religion a different division of the year was made; the days were treated as _festi_ or as _profesti_,--the former being consecrated to acts of public worship, such as sacrifices, banquets and games, while the latter (whether _fasti_ or _nefasti_) were not specially claimed for religious purposes. the _dies festi_ or _feriae publicae_[10] were either _stativae_, _conceptivae_ or _imperativae_. the _stativae_ were such as were observed regularly, each on a definite day; the _conceptivae_ were observed annually on days fixed by the authorities for the time being; the _imperativae_ were publicly appointed as occasion called for them. in the augustan age the _feriae stativae_ were very numerous, as may be seen from what we possess of the _fasti_ of ovid. the number was somewhat fluctuating. festivals frequently fell into desuetude or were revived, were increased or diminished, were shortened or prolonged at the will of the emperor, or under the caprice of the popular taste. thus augustus restored the compitalia and lupercalia; while marcus antoninus in his turn found it expedient to diminish the number of holidays. the following is an enumeration of the stated festivals as given by ovid and contemporary writers. the first day of january was observed somewhat as is the modern new year's day: clients sent presents to their patrons, slaves to their masters, friends and relatives to one another. on the 9th the _agonalia_ were held, apparently in honour of janus. on the 11th the _carmentalia_ were kept as a half-holiday, but principally by women; so also on the 15th. on the 13th of february were the _faunalia_, on the 15th the _lupercalia_, on the 17th the _quirinalia_, on the 18th the _feralia_, on the 23rd (at one time the last day of the roman year) the _terminalia_, on the 24th the _regifugium_ or _fugalia_, and on the 27th the _equiria_ (of mars). on the 1st of march were the _matronalia_, on the 14th a repetition of the _equiria_, on the 15th the festival of anna perenna, on the 17th the _liberalia_ or _agonalia_, and from the 19th to the 23rd the _quinquatria_ (of minerva). on the 4th of april were the _megalesia_ (of cybele), on the 12th the _cerealia_, on the 21st the _palilia_, on the 23rd the _vinalia_, on the 25th the _robigalia_, and on the 28th the _floralia_. the 1st of may was the festival of the _lares praestites_; on the 9th, 11th and 13th the _lemuria_ were celebrated; on the 12th the _ludi martiales_, and on the 15th those of mercury. june 5 was sacred to _semo sancus_; the _vestalia_ occurred on the 9th, the _matralia_ on the 11th, and the _quinquatrus minusculae_ on the 13th. the _ludi apollinares_ were on the 5th, and the _neptunalia_ on the 23rd of july. on the 13th of august were the _nemoralia_, in honour of diana; on the 18th the _consualia_, on the 19th the _vinalia rustica_, and on the 23rd the _vulcanalia_. the _ludi magni_, in honour of jupiter, juno and minerva, began on september 4. the _meditrinalia_ (new wine) were on the 11th of october, the _faunalia_ on the 13th, and the _equiria_ on the 15th. the _epulum jovis_ was on 13th november. the december festivals were--on the 5th _faunalia_, and towards the close _opalia_, _saturnalia_, _larentalia_. the calendar as it stood at the augustan age was known to contain many comparatively recent accessions, brought in under the influence of two "closely allied powers, the foreign priest and the foreign cook" (mommsen). the _megalesia_, for example, had been introduced 204 b.c. the _ludi apollinares_ could not be traced farther back than 208 b.c. the _floralia_ and _cerealia_ had not come in much earlier. among the oldest feasts were undoubtedly the _lupercalia_, in honour of lupercus, the god of fertility; the _equiria_, in honour of mars; the _palilia_; the great september festival; and the _saturnalia_. among the feriae conceptivae were the very ancient _feriae latinae_, held in honour of jupiter on the alban mount, and attended by all the higher magistrates and the whole body of the senate. the time of their celebration greatly depended on the state of affairs at rome, as the consuls were not allowed to take the field until they had held the _latinae_, which were regarded as days of a sacred truce. the _feriae sementivae_ were held in the spring, and the _ambarvalia_ in autumn, both in honour of ceres. the _paganalia_ of each _pagus_, and the _compitalia_ of each _vicus_ were also _conceptivae_. of _feriae imperativae_,--that is to say, festivals appointed by the senate, or magistrates, or higher priests to commemorate some great event or avert some threatened disaster,--the best known is the _novendiale_, which used to be celebrated as often as stones fell from heaven (livy xxi. 62, xxv. 7, &c.). in addition to all those already mentioned, there occasionally occurred _ludi votivi_, which were celebrated in fulfilment of a vow; _ludi funebres_, sometimes given by private persons; and _ludi seculares_, to celebrate certain periods marked off in the etrusco-roman religion. _feasts of the jews_.--by old testament writers a festival or feast is generally called either [hebrew: hag] (compare the arabic hadj), from [hebrew: hagag] to rejoice, or [hebrew: moed], from [hebrew: yaad], to appoint. the words [hebrew: shabat] and [hebrew: mikra kodesh] are also occasionally used. in the talmud the three principal feasts are called [hebrew: regalim], after exod. xxiii. 14. of the jewish feasts which are usually traced to a pre-mosaic origin the most important and characteristic was the weekly sabbath, but special importance was also attached from a very early date to the lunar periods. it is probable that other festivals also, of a seasonal character, were observed (see exod. v. 1). in common with most others, the mosaic system of annual feasts groups itself readily around the vernal and autumnal equinoxes. in lev. xxiii., where the list is most fully given, they seem to be arranged with a conscious reference to the sacred number seven (compare numb. xxviii.). those belonging to the vernal equinox are three in number; a preparatory day, that of the passover, leads up to the principal festival, that of unleavened bread, which again is followed by an after-feast, that of pentecost (see passover, pentecost). those of the autumnal equinox are four; a preparatory day on the new moon of the seventh month (the feast of trumpets) is followed by a great day of rest, the day of atonement (which, however, was hardly a _festival_ in the stricter sense of the word), by the feast of tabernacles, and by a great concluding day (lev. xxiii. 36; john vii. 37). if the feast of the passover be excepted, it will be seen that all these celebrations or commemorations associate themselves more readily with natural than with historical events.[11] there was also a considerable number of post-mosaic festivals, of which the principal were that of the dedication (described in 1 macc. iv. 52-59; comp. john x. 22) and that of purim, the origin of which is given in the book of esther (ix. 20 seq.). it has probably no connexion with the persian festival furdigan (see esther).[12] _earlier christian festivals._--while making it abundantly manifest that christ and his disciples observed the appointed jewish feasts, the new testament nowhere records the formal institution of any distinctively christian festival. but we have unambiguous evidence of the actual observance, from a very early period, of the first day of the week as a holy day (john xx. 19, 26; 1 cor. xvi. 2; acts xx. 7; rev. i. 10). pliny in his letter to trajan describes the christians of bithynia as meeting for religious purposes on a set day; that this day was sunday is put beyond all reasonable doubt by such a passage as that in the _apology_ of justin martyr, where he says that "on sunday ([greek: te tou heliou legomene hemera]) all the christians living either in the city or the country met together." the jewish element, in some churches at least, and especially in the east, was strong enough to secure that, along with the _dies dominica_, the seventh day should continue to be kept holy. thus in the _apostolic constitutions_ (ii. 59) we find the saturday specially mentioned along with the sunday as a day for the assembling of the church; in v. 15 it is ordained that there shall be no fasting on saturday, while in viii. 33 it is added that both on saturday and sunday slaves are to have rest from their labours. the 16th canon of the council of laodicea almost certainly means that solemn public service was to be held on saturday as well as on sunday. in other quarters, however, the tendency to regard both days as equally sacred met with considerable resistance. the 36th canon of the council of illiberis, for example, deciding that saturday should be observed as a fast-day, was doubtless intended to enforce the distinction between saturday and sunday. at milan in ambrose's time saturday was observed as a festival; but pope innocent is found writing to the bishop of eugubium to urge that it should be kept as a fast. ultimately the christian church came to recognize but one weekly festival. the numerous yearly festivals of the later christian church, when historically investigated, can be traced to very small beginnings. indeed, while it appears to be tolerably certain that jewish christians for the most part retained all the festivals which had been instituted under the old dispensation, it is not at all probable that either they or their gentile brethren recognized any yearly feasts as of distinctively christian origin or obligation. it cannot be doubted, however, that gradually, in the course of the 2nd century, the universal church came to observe the anniversaries of the death and resurrection of christ--the [greek: pascha staurosimon] and the [greek: pascha hanastasimon], as they were respectively called (see easter and good friday). not long afterwards whitsunday also came to be fixed in the usage of christendom as a great annual festival. even origen (in the 8th book _against celsus_) enumerates as christian festivals the sunday, the [greek: paraskeue], the passover with the feast of the resurrection, and pentecost; under which latter term, however, he includes the whole period between easter and whitsuntide. about cyprian's time we find individual christians commemorating their departed friends, and whole churches commemorating their martyrs; in particular, there are traces of a local and partial observance of the feast of the innocents. christmas day and epiphany were among the later introductions, the feast of the epiphany being somewhat the earlier of the two. both are alluded to indeed by clemens alexandrinus (i. 340), but only in a way which indicates that even in his time the precise date of christ's birth was unknown, that its anniversary was not usually observed, and that the day of his baptism was kept as a festival only by the followers of basilides (see epiphany). when we come down to the 4th century we find that, among the 50 days between easter and pentecost, ascension day has come into new prominence. augustine, for example, enumerates as anniversaries celebrated by the whole church those of christ's passion, resurrection and ascension, along with that of the outpouring of the holy ghost, while he is silent with regard to christmas and epiphany. the general tendency of this and the following centuries was largely to increase the festivals of the church, and by legislation to make them more fixed and uniform. many passages, indeed, could be quoted from chrysostom, jerome and augustine to show that these fathers had not by any means forgotten that comparative freedom with regard to outward observances was one of the distinctive excellences of christianity as contrasted with judaism and the various heathen systems (compare socrates, _h.e._ v. 22). but there were many special circumstances which seemed to the leaders of the church at that time to necessitate the permission and even legislative sanction of a large number of new feasts. the innovations of heretics sometimes seemed to call for rectification by the institution of more orthodox observances; in other instances the propensity of rude and uneducated converts from paganism to cling to the festal rites of their forefathers proved to be invincible, so that it was seen to be necessary to seek to adapt the old usages to the new worship rather than to abolish them altogether;[13] moreover, although the empire had become christian, it was manifestly expedient that the old holidays should be recognized as much as possible in the new arrangements of the calendar. constantine soon after his conversion enacted that on the _dies dominica_ there should be no suits or trials in law; theodosius the great added a prohibition of all public shows on that day, and theodosius the younger extended the prohibition to epiphany and the anniversaries of martyrdoms, which at that time included the festivals of st stephen, and of st peter and st paul, as also that of the maccabees. in the 21st canon of the council of agde (506), besides easter, christmas, epiphany, ascension and pentecost, we find the nativity of john the baptist already mentioned as one of the more important festivals on which attendance at church was regarded as obligatory. to these were added, in the centuries immediately following, the feasts of the annunciation, the purification, and the assumption of the virgin; as well as those of the circumcision, of st michael and of all saints. festivals were in practice distinguished from ordinary days in the following ways: all public and judicial business was suspended,[14] as well as every kind of game or amusement which might interfere with devotion; the churches were specially decorated; christians were expected to attend public worship, attired in their best dress; love feasts were celebrated, and the rich were accustomed to show special kindness to the poor; fasting was strictly forbidden, and public prayers were said in a standing posture. _later practice._--in the present calendar of the roman catholic church the number of feast days is very large. each is celebrated by an appropriate office, which, according to its character, is either duplex, semi-duplex or simplex. a duplex again may be either of the first class or of the second, or a major or a minor. the distinctions of ritual for each of these are given with great minuteness in the general rubrics of the breviary; they turn chiefly on the number of psalms to be sung and of lessons to be read, on the manner in which the antiphons are to be given and on similar details. the duplicia of the first class are the nativity, the epiphany, easter with the three preceding and two following days, the ascension, whitsunday and the two following days, corpus christi, the nativity of john baptist, saints peter and paul, the assumption of the virgin, all saints, and, for each church, the feast proper to its patron or title and the feast of its dedication. the duplicia of the second class are the circumcision, the feast of the holy name of jesus, of the holy trinity, and of the most precious blood of christ, the feasts of the purification, annunciation, visitation, nativity and conception of the virgin, the natalitia of the twelve apostles, the feasts of the evangelists, of st stephen, of the holy innocents, of st joseph and of the patrocinium of joseph, of st lawrence, of the invention of the cross and of the dedication of st michael. the dominicae majores of the first class are the first sunday in advent, the first in lent, passion sunday, palm sunday, easter sunday, dominica in albis, whitsunday and trinity sunday; the dominicae majores of the second class are the second, third and fourth in advent, septuagesima, sexagesima and quinquagesima sundays, and the second, third and fourth sundays in lent. in the canons and decrees of the council of trent repeated allusions are made to the feast days, and their fitness, when properly observed, to promote piety. those entrusted with the cure of souls are urged to see that the feasts of the church be devoutly and religiously observed, the faithful are enjoined to attend public worship on sundays and on the greater festivals at least, and parish priests are bidden to expound to the people on such days some of the things which have been read in the office for the day. since the council of trent the practice of the church with respect to the prohibition of servile work on holidays has varied considerably in different catholic countries, and even in the same country at different times. thus in 1577, in the diocese of lyons, there were almost forty annual festivals of a compulsory character. by the concordat of 1802 the number of such festivals was for france reduced to four, namely, christmas day, ascension day, the assumption of the virgin, and all saints day. the calendar of the greek church is even fuller than that of the latin, especially as regards the [greek: heortai ton hagion]. thus on the last sunday in advent the feast of all saints of the old covenant is celebrated; while adam and eve, job, elijah, isaiah, &c., have separate days. the distinctions of ritual are analogous to those in the western church. in the coptic church there are seven great festivals, christmas, epiphany, the annunciation, palm sunday, easter sunday, ascension and whitsunday, on all of which the copts "wear new clothes (or the best they have), feast and give alms" (lane). they also observe, as minor festivals, maundy thursday, holy saturday, the feast of the apostles (11th july), and that of the discovery of the cross. in common with most of the churches of the reformation, the church of england retained a certain number of feasts besides all sundays in the year. they are, besides monday and tuesday both in easter-week and whitsun-week, as follows: the circumcision, the epiphany, the conversion of st paul, the purification of the blessed virgin, st matthias the apostle, the annunciation of the blessed virgin, st mark the evangelist, st philip and st james (apostles), the ascension, st barnabas, the nativity of st john baptist, st peter the apostle, st james the apostle, st bartholomew, st matthew, st michael and all angels, st luke the evangelist, st simon and st jude, all saints, st andrew, st thomas, christmas, st stephen, st john the evangelist, the holy innocents. the 13th canon enjoins that all manner of persons within the church of england shall from henceforth celebrate and keep the lord's day, commonly called sunday, and other holy days, according to god's holy will and pleasure, and the orders of the church of england prescribed in that behalf, that is, in hearing the word of god read and taught, in private and public prayers, in acknowledging their offences to god and amendment of the same, in reconciling themselves charitably to their neighbours where displeasure hath been, in oftentimes receiving the communion of the body and blood of christ, in visiting of the poor and sick, using all godly and sober conversation. (compare hooker, _e.p._ v. 70.) in the _directory for the public worship of god_ which was drawn up by the westminster assembly, and accepted by the church of scotland in 1645, there is an appendix which declares that there is no day commanded in scripture to be kept holy under the gospel but the lord's day, which is the christian sabbath; festival days, vulgarly called holy-days, having no warrant in the word of god, are not to be continued; nevertheless it is lawful and necessary, upon special emergent occasions, to separate a day or days for public fasting or thanksgiving, as the several eminent and extraordinary dispensations of god's providence shall administer cause and opportunity to his people. several attempts have been made at various times in western europe to reorganize the festival system on some other scheme than the christian. thus at the time of the french revolution, during the period of robespierre's ascendancy, it was proposed to substitute a tenth day (decadi) for the weekly rest, and to introduce the following new festivals: that of the supreme being and of nature, of the human race, of the french people, of the benefactors of mankind, of freedom and equality, of the martyrs of freedom, of the republic, of the freedom of the world, of patriotism, of hatred of tyrants and traitors, of truth, of justice, of modesty, of fame and immortality, of friendship, of temperance, of heroism, of fidelity, of unselfishness, of stoicism, of love, of conjugal fidelity, of filial affection, of childhood, of youth, of manhood, of old age, of misfortune, of agriculture, of industry, of our forefathers, of posterity and felicity. the proposal, however, was never fully carried out, and soon fell into oblivion. _mahommedan festivals._--these are chiefly two--the 'eed es-sagheer (or minor festival) and the 'eed el-kebeer (or great festival), sometimes called 'eed el-kurban. the former, which lasts for three days, immediately follows the month ramadan, and is generally the more joyful of the two; the latter begins on the tenth of zu-l-heggeh (the last month of the mahommedan year), and lasts for three or four days. besides these festivals they usually keep holy the first ten days of moharram (the first month of the year), especially the tenth day, called yom ashoora; the birthday of the prophet, on the twelfth day of the third month; the birthday of el-hoseyn, in the fourth month; the anniversary of the prophet's miraculous ascension into heaven, in the seventh month; and one or two other anniversaries. friday, called the day of el-gumah (the assembly), is a day of public worship; but it is not usual to abstain from public business on that day except during the time of prayer. _hindu and buddhist festivals._--in modern india the leading popular festivals are the holi, which is held in march or april and lasts for five days, and the dasahara, which occurs in october. although in its origin buddhism was a deliberate reaction against all ceremonial, it does not now refuse to observe festivals. by buddhists in china, for example, three days in the year are especially observed in honour of the buddha,--the eighth day of the second month, when he left his home; the eighth day of the fourth month, the anniversary of his birthday; and the eighth of the twelfth, when he attained to perfection and entered nirvana. in siam the eighth and fifteenth days of every month are considered holy, and are observed as days for rest and worship. at trut, the festival of the close of the year, visiting and play-going are universal. the new year (january) is celebrated for three days; in february is another holiday; in april is a sort of lent, ushering in the rainy season; on the last day of june presents are made of cakes of the new rice; in august is the festival of the angel of the river, "whose forgiveness is then asked for every act by which the waters of the meinam have been rendered impure." see bowring's _siam_ and carne's _travels in indo-china and the chinese empire_. copious details of the elaborate festival-system of the chinese may be found in doolittle's _social life of the chinese_. literature.--for christian feasts see k.a. h. kellner, _heortologie_ (freiburg im breisgau, 1906); hippolyte delehaye, _les legendes hagiographiques_ (brussels, 1905); j. rendel harris, _the cult of the heavenly twins_ (cambridge, 1906); de rossi-duchesne, _martyrologium hieronymianum_. footnotes: [1] "to feast" is simply to keep a festum or festival. the etymology of the word is uncertain; but probably it has no connexion with the gr. [greek: hestian]. [2] see spencer, _principles of sociology_, i. 170, 280, 306. [3] haug, _parsis_, 224, 225. [4] "may the heavens, the waters, the firmament, be kind to us; may the lord of the field be gracious to us.... may the oxen (draw) happily, the men labour happily; may the traces bind happily, wield the goad happily" (wilson's translation, iii. 224). [5] see haug's _aitareya-brahmanam of the rig-veda_; max muller's _chips from a german workshop_, i. 115. [6] visperad. see haug, _parsis_, 192; richardson's _dissertation on the language, &c., of eastern nations_, p. 184; morier's _journey through persia_. [7] plutarch, _de iside et osiride_; macrobius, _saturnalia_, i. 21. [8] in this month the anniversaries of the battle of marathon, and of the downfall of the thirty tyrants, were also publicly celebrated. [9] see schoemann, _griechische altertumer_, ii. 439 seq.; mommsen _heortologie_. [10] _feriae privatae_, such as anniversaries of births, deaths, and the like, were observed by separate clans, families or individuals. [11] in the "parallel" passages, there is considerable variety in the designation and arrangement of these feasts. while ex. xii. approximates most closely to lev. xxiii. and num. xxviii., ex. xxiii. has stronger affinities with deut. xvi. the relations of these passages are largely discussed by graf, _die geschichtlichen bucher des a. t._, pp. 34-41, and by other recent critics. [12] on the whole subject of jewish festivals see reland, _antiq. hebr._; knobel, _leviticus_ (c. 23); george, _die judischen feste_; edersheim, _the temple; its ministry and services_; ewald, _altertumer des volkes israel_; articles in bible dictionaries. [13] as, at a later period (601), gregory the great instructed his anglo-saxon missionaries so to christianize the temples, festivals, &c., of the heathen "ut durae mentes gradibus vel passibus, non autem saltibus, eleventur." [14] manumission, however, was lawful on any day. feather (o. eng. _fether_, ger. _feder_, from an indo-european root seen also in gr. [greek: pteron], and [greek: petesthai], to fly), a horny outgrowth of the skin of birds homologous with the scale of the reptile. the body-covering of birds is, without exception, comprised of feathers, and by this character alone birds may be distinguished from all other animals. the most perfect form of feather is made up of a long, tapering rod, fringed on either side, for the greater part of its length, by a secondary series of slender and tapering rods forming a more or less acute angle with the central axis. this fringe is known as the _vexillum_ or "vane" (fig. 1 a). the central axis is divisible into two distinct parts,--a hollow, cylindrical, transparent _calamus_, or "quill," the base of which is inserted into the skin, and a solid, quadrangular _rhachis_ or "shaft" which supports the vane. at the lower end of the quill is a small hole--the lower _umbilicus_--through which the nutritive pulp passes during the growth of the feather: while at the upper end, where it passes into the shaft, a similar hole will be found,--the upper _umbilicus_--and from this the last remains of the capsules which contained the nutritive pulp may sometimes be seen protruding. if the quill is cut open a series of these capsules will be found fitting one into the other throughout the whole length of the tubular chamber. [illustration: fig. 1.--diagrams of feather-barbs. a, outline of a feather showing the relation of the barbs and barbules to the central axis or shaft. b, section across two of the barbs shown in a, highly magnified. c, two barbules of the posterior series--seen only in cross-section in b. d, a barbule of the anterior series. e, section across the base of three anterior barbules showing attachment to barb. f, a portion of the hooklet of the anterior series showing the method of interlocking with the barbules of the posterior series.] the rods comprising the lateral fringe, or vane, are known as the _rami_ or the "barbs," and will be found, on microscopic examination, to be lath-shaped and to taper to a point. further, each barb supports a double series of smaller outgrowths known as the _radii_, or "barbules"; so that each barb may be likened to a feather in miniature. these "barbules," however, differ markedly in structure on the two sides of the barb, those pointing towards the tip of the feather--the "anterior barbules"--being ribbon-shaped from the base outwards for about half their length, when they become cut up to form a series of long and very delicate hooklets (fig. 1 d). on the opposite side of the barb the barbules are also ribbon-shaped for about half their length, but the ribbon is curved trough-fashion, so that the whole series of posterior barbules forms a number of deep valleys, and into these the hooklets are thrust so as to catch hold of the upper edges of the troughs, which are set so that the upper edge is towards the upper, and the lower edge towards the under surface of the feather. the manner in which this beautiful mechanism works may be seen in fig. 1 b. in one of the primary or "quill" feathers of the wing of a crane, each barb of the inner side of the vane was found to bear about 600 pairs of barbules, which would make about 800,000 barbules for the inner web of the vane alone, or more than a million for the whole feather (h.f. gadow). it is to the agency of these hooklets alone that the closely-knit, elastic vanes of the flight feathers and the body feathers are due. where these hooklets are wanting the barbs do not adhere together, resulting in a loose "discontinuous" vane such as, for example, is found in the plumes of the ostrich. many feathers, in addition to the main axis, bear a second, generally much shorter axis, supporting a loose discontinuous vane; this shorter branch is known as the "aftershaft" and arises from the under surface of the feather. only in the cassowary and emu among adult birds is the aftershaft as large as the main shaft. there are several different kinds of feathers--contour feathers, semiplumes, down-feathers, filoplumes and powder-down. contour feathers, as their name implies, are those which form the contour or outline of the body, and are all that can generally be seen. those which form the "flight feathers" of the wing, and the tail feathers, are the most perfectly developed. semiplumes are degenerate contour feathers. the down-feathers are generally completely hidden by the contour feathers: they form in many birds, such as gulls and ducks, a thick underclothing comparable to the under-fur of mammals such as the seals. in all cases they are of a loose, soft, "fluffy" structure, the barbs being of great length and slenderness, while the barbules are often long and provided with knob-like thickenings answering to the hooklets of the more perfectly developed contour feathers; these thickenings help to "felt" the separate down-feathers together, the barbs of one down-feather interlocking with those of its neighbour. down-feathers differ from semiplumes both in their relation to contour feathers and in that they do not possess a main axis, all the barbs arising from a common centre. filoplumes are degenerate structures having a superficial resemblance to hairs, but they always bear a minute vane at the tip. they occur in all birds, in clusters of varying number, about the bases of contour feathers. in some birds they attain a great length, and may project beyond the contour feathers, sometimes forming conspicuous white patches, as for example in the necks of cormorants. in their early stages of development they often possess a large aftershaft made up of a number of barbs, but these quickly disappear, leaving only the degenerate main shaft. the eyelashes and bristles round the mouth found in many birds appear to be akin to filoplumes. powder-down feathers are degenerate down-feathers which appear to secrete a dry, waxy kind of powder. this powder rapidly disintegrates and becomes distributed over the plumage, adding thereto a quite peculiar bloom. in birds of the heron tribe powder-down feathers have reached a high degree of development, forming large patches in the breast and thighs, while in some hawks, and in the parrots, these mysterious feathers are scattered singly over the greater part of the body. nestling down. the nature of the covering of nestling birds is of a more complex character than has hitherto been suspected. the majority of young birds, as is well known, either emerge from the egg clothed in down-feathers, or they develop these within a day or two afterwards. but this covering, though superficially similar in all, may, as a matter of fact, differ widely in its constitution, even in closely related forms, while only in a very few species can the complete history of these feathers be made out. the brown or tawny owl (_syrnium aluco_) is one of these. at hatching, the young of this species is thickly clad in white, woolly down-feathers, of the character known as umbelliform--that is to say, the central axis or main shaft is wanting, so that the barbs all start from a common centre. these feathers occupy the position of the ultimate contour feathers. they are shortly replaced by a second down-like covering, superficially resembling, and generally regarded as, true down. but they differ in that their barbs spring from a central axis as in typical contour feathers. feathers of this last description indeed have now made their appearance in the shape of the "flight" or quill feathers (_remiges_) and of the tail feathers. this plumage is worn until the autumn, when the downy feathers give place to the characteristic adult plumage. the down feathers which appear at hatching-time are known as _pre-pennae_, or _pre-plumulae_, as the case may be; the first generation of pre-pennae, in the case of the tawny owl for example, is made up of _protoptyles_, while the succeeding plumage is made up of _mesoptyles_, and these in turn give place to the _teleoptyles_ or adult feathers. the two forms of nestling plumage--pre-pennae and pre-plumulae--may be collectively called "neossoptyles," a term coined by h.f. gadow to distinguish the plumage of the nestling from that of the adult--the "teleoptyle" plumage. as a rule the nestling develops but one of these generations of neossoptyles, and this generally answers to the mesoptyle plumage, though this is of a degenerate type. in some birds, as in the megapodes, the "protoptyle" or first of these two generations of pre-pennae is developed and shed while the chick is yet in the shell, so that at hatching the mesoptyle plumage is well developed. but in the majority of birds, probably, the mesoptyle plumage only is developed, while the earlier, and apparently more degenerate, dress is suppressed. in the penguins both of these nestling plumages are developed, but the mesoptyle dress has degenerated so that umbelliform feathers now take the place of feathers having a central axis. the anatidae show traces of the earlier, first generation of feathers in one or two species only, e.g. _cloephaga rubidiceps_. in all the remaining species mesoptyles only occur. and this is true also of the game-birds. in both the tinamous, the duck-tribe and the game-birds this mesoptyle plumage shows, in different species, every gradation between feathers having a well-developed main shaft and aftershaft, and those which are mere umbelliform tufts. as development proceeds and the contour feathers make their appearance they thrust the mesoptyle feathers out of their follicles--the pockets in the skin in which they were rooted--and these will often be found adhering to the tips of the contour feathers for many weeks after the bird has left the nest. this occurs because the development of the contour feather begins before that of the mesoptyles has completed. the plumage in nestling birds is still further complicated by the fact that it may be almost, or entirely, composed of pre-plumulae; that is to say, of down-feathers which are later succeeded by adult _down-feathers_. this is the case among the accipitrine birds for example, and thereby it differs entirely from that of the owls, which develop neither pre-plumulae nor adult down. the cormorants are, so far as is known, the only birds which have a nestling plumage composed entirely of pre-plumulae. the colours of feathers. in variety and brilliancy the colours of birds are not surpassed by those of any other group of animals. yet the pigments to which these colours are due are but few in number, while a large number of the most resplendent hues are produced by structural peculiarities of the colourless horny surface of the feathers, and hence are known as subjective or optical colours. the principal colour pigments are (a) _melanin pigments_, derived possibly from the haemoglobin of the blood, but more probably from the blood plasma, and (b) _lipochrome_ or "fat" pigments, which are regarded as reserve products; though in the case of birds it is exceedingly doubtful whether they have this significance. the melanin pigments (_zoomelanin_) occur in the form of granules and give rise to the black, brown and grey tones; or they may combine with those of the lipochrome series. the lipochrome pigments (_zoonerythrin_ and _zooxanthin_) tend to be diffused throughout the substance of the feather, and give rise respectively to the red and yellow colours. in addition to these must be reckoned _turacin_, a reddish-purple pigment consisting of the same elements as zoomelanin, but remarkable for the fact that it contains from 5 to 8% of copper, which can be extracted by a weak alkaline solution, such as ammonia, and with the addition of acetic acid it can be filtered off as a metallic red or blue powder. the presence of metallic copper is indicated by the green flame of these red feathers when burnt. turacin was discovered by sir a.h. church in the quill-feathers of the wings of touracoes or "plantain eaters." these feathers, he showed, lose their colour after they have become wet, but regain it on drying. but turacin is not, as was supposed, confined to the feathers of the plantain eaters, since it has been obtained from a cuckoo, _dasylophus superciliosus_. what effect food may have on colour in birds in a wild state we have no means of knowing, but it is significant that flamingoes and linnets in confinement never regain their bright hues after their first moult in captivity. if cayenne pepper be mixed with the food of certain strains of canaries, from the time the birds are hatched onwards, the yellow colour of the feathers becomes intensified, till it takes on a deep orange hue. bullfinches, if fed on hemp-seed, turn black. according to darwin, the natives of the amazonian region feed the common green parrot on the fat of large siluroid fishes, and as a result the feathers become beautifully variegated with red and yellow. similarly, in the malay archipelago, the natives of gilolo change the colours of another parrot. with but rare exceptions bright colours are confined to the exposed portions of the plumage, but in some of the bustards the down is of a bright pink colour. structural colours. structural colours include all metallic or prismatic colours, blue, green, white, some yellows, and, in part, glossy black. in metallic feathers the radii (barbules) are modified in various ways, frequently to form flattened, overlapping plates or tiles, while the surfaces of the plates are either smooth, finely striated or pitted. but, save only in the case of white feathers, beneath this colourless, glazed outer coat there is always a layer of pigment. the only green pigment known to occur in feathers is _turacoverdin_, found in the feathers of the plantain eaters; it contains a relatively large amount of iron, but no copper. in all other cases the green colour of feathers is due to yellow, orange or greyish-brown pigment occurring with a special superstructure consisting of narrow ridges, as in some parrots and pittas (ant-thrushes), or the surface of the barbs and barbules is smooth and transparent, while between it and the pigment there exists a layer of small polygonal, colourless bodies having highly refractory, and often striated, surfaces. blue is unknown as a pigment in feathers. blue feathers contain only orange or brownish pigment (gadow), the blue colour being caused by the combination of pigment corpuscles and colourless striated polygonal bodies, as in green feathers. while in many birds the coloration takes the form either of a uniform hue or of bands and patches of colour more or less brilliant, in others the coloration is sombre, and made up of dark longitudinal stripes or transverse bars on a lighter ground. the latter is the more primitive, and there seems good reason to believe that longitudinal stripes preceded transverse bars. this is indicated by the fact that the nestlings of the more primitive groups are longitudinally striped, and that young hawks in their first plumage are so striped, while the adults are barred. there is also evidence to show that the evolution of brilliant plumage began with the males, and has, in many cases, been more or less perfectly acquired by the females, and also by the young, as for example in the kingfishers, where parents and offspring wear the same livery. often, where the parents are alike in plumage, the young wear a different and duller livery, as in the case of the common starling (_sturnus vulgaris_). but where the female differs from the male in coloration the young resemble the female parent. the physiological explanation of complete disappearance of pigment in adult life, e.g. gannet, is not yet apparent. moulting. at least once annually birds renew their feathers completely by a process known as a moult. until the new feathers have attained at least half their full length they are invested in a soft sheath, and, as development proceeds, the sheath breaks up from the tip of the feather downwards, so that for a time the new feathers have almost a brush-like appearance. generally this replacement takes place gradually, new and old feathers occurring side by side, and on this account it is not always possible to see whether a moult is proceeding without raising the old feathers. the "quill" feathers of the wing and tail are renewed in pairs, so that flight is little, if at all, impaired, the change taking place in the wing from the region of the wrist inwards, as to the primaries, and from the body outwards, towards the tip of the wing, as to the secondaries. in certain birds, however, as in the duck tribe and the rails, for example, all the quill-feathers of the wing are shed at once, so that for some time flight is impossible. in the penguins this simultaneous method of moulting is carried still further. that is to say, the old feathers covering the body are not replaced gradually, but _en masse_. this method of ecdysis is, however, still further remarkable in that the old feathers do not drop out, to be succeeded by spine-like stumps which, later, split at the tip, liberating the barbs of the new feathers. they are, on the contrary, thrust out upon the tips of the new feathers, the barbs of which are never enclosed within an envelope such as that just described. when their growth has practically completed, and not till then, the old feathers are removed in large patches by the aid of the bird's beak; exposing thereby a perfectly developed plumage. in the cassowary, and emeu, the old feathers similarly adhere for a time to the tips of the new; but in these birds the feathers are moulted singly as in other birds. some birds moult twice within the year, the additional moult taking place in the spring, as in the case of the "warblers" (sylviidae) and limicolae, for example. but when this is the case the spring moult is only partial, since the quill feathers of the wings and the tail feathers are not renewed. at this spring moult a special "nuptial" plumage is often assumed, as for example in many of the limicolae, e.g. god-wits, knots, dunlin, ruff. the sequel to this habit of assuming a nuptial dress is an interesting one. briefly, this plumage, at first assumed at the mating period by the males only, and doffed soon after the young appear, has become retained for longer and longer periods, so that the succeeding plumage, often conspicuously dull compared with the nuptial dress, is worn only for a few weeks, instead of many months, as in the case of many of the ducks, for example; wherein the males, as soon as the young are hatched, assume what c. waterton has aptly called an "eclipse" dress. this, instead of being worn till the following spring, as in the waders, is shed again in the autumn and replaced by what answers to the waders' "nuptial" dress. in the game-birds but a trace of this "eclipse" plumage remains; and this, apparently, only in jungle-fowl, the common grey partridge (_perdix cinerea_) and the blackcock (_lyrurus_), in whose case the head and neck for a short period following the breeding season are clothed only by dull feathers. further, this more highly developed plumage becomes transferred, first to the female, then to the young, so that, in many groups, the dull phase of plumage is entirely eliminated. but the assumption at the breeding season of a conspicuously brilliant plumage is not always due to a moult. in many birds, notably many passerines, this change is brought about by shedding the tips of the feathers, which are of a duller hue than the rest of the feather. in this way the bright rose pink of the linnet's breast, the blue and black head of the chaffinch, and the black throat and chestnut-and-black markings of the back of the sparrow, are assumed--to mention but a few instances. these birds moult but once a year, in the autumn, when the new feathers have broad brown fringes; as the spring advances these drop off, and with them the barbicels from the barbules of the upper surface of the feather, thus revealing the hidden tints. according to some authorities, however, some birds acquire a change of colour without a moult by the ascent of pigment from the base of the feather. the black head assumed by many gulls in the spring is, for example, said to be gained in this way. there is, however, not only no good evidence in support of the contention, but the whole structure of the feather is against the probability of any such change taking place. the development of feathers. feathers correspond with the scales of reptiles rather than with the hairs of mammals, as is shown by their development. they make their first appearance in the developing chick at about the sixth day of incubation, in the shape of small papillae. in section each papilla is found to be made up of a cluster of dermal cells--that is to say, of cells of the deeper layer of the skin--capped by cells of the epidermis. these last form a single superficial layer of flattened cells--the _epitrichium_--overlaying the cells of the malpighian layer, which are cylindrical in shape and rapidly increase to form several layers. as development proceeds the papillae assume a cone-shape with its apex directed backwards, while the base of this cone sinks down into the skin, or rather is carried down by the growth of the malpighian cells, so that the cone is now sunk in a deep pit. thereby these malpighian cells become divided into two portions: (1) those taking part in the formation of the walls of the pit or "feather follicle," and (2) those enclosed within the cone. these last surround the central mass or core formed by the dermis. this mass constitutes the nutritive pulp for the development of the growing feather, and is highly vascular. the cells of the malpighian layer within the cone now become differentiated into three layers. (1) an inner, extremely thin, forming a delicate sheath for the pulp, and found in the fully developed feather in the form of a series of hollow, transparent caps enclosed within the calamus; (2) a thick layer which forms the feather itself; and (3) a thin layer which forms the investing sheath of the feather. it is this sheath which gives the curious spine-covered character to many nestling birds and birds in moult. as growth proceeds the cells of this middle layer arrange themselves in longitudinal rows to form the barbs, while the barbules are formed by a secondary splitting. at their bases these rudimentary barbs meet to form the calamus. finally the tips of the barbs break through the investing sheath and the fully formed down-feather emerges. a part of the pulp and malpighian cells remains over after the complete growth of the down-feather, and from this succeeding generations of feathers are developed. the process of this development differs from that just outlined chiefly in this: that of the longitudinal rows which in the down-feather form the barbs, two on the dorsal and two on the ventral aspect of the interior of the cylinder become stronger than the rest, combining to form the main-and after-shaft respectively. the remainder of the rods form the barbs and barbules as in the down-feather. the reproductive power of the feather follicle appears to be almost inexhaustible, since it is not diminished appreciably by age, nor restricted to definite moulting periods, as is shown by the cruel and now obsolete custom of plucking geese alive, no less than three times annually, for the sake of their feathers. the growth of the feathers is, however, certainly affected by the general health of the bird, mal-nutrition causing the appearance of peculiar transverse v-shaped grooves, at more or less regular intervals, along the whole length of the feather. these are known as "hunger-marks," a name given by falconers, to whom this defect was well known. it would seem that while the feather germ may be artificially stimulated to produce three successive generations of feathers within a year, it may, on the other hand, be induced artificially to maintain a continuous activity extending over long periods. that is to say, the normal quiescent period, and periodic moult, may be suspended, so that the feather maintains a steady and continuous growth till it attains a length of several feet. the only known instance of this kind is that furnished by a domesticated breed of jungle-fowl known as the "japanese long-tailed fowls" or as "yokohamas." in this breed the upper tail coverts are in some way, as yet unknown to europeans, induced to go on growing until they have attained a length of from 12 to 18 or even 20 ft.! in this abnormal growth the "hackles" of the lower part of the back also share, though they do not attain a similar length. the feathers of birds are not uniformly distributed over the body, but grow only along certain definite tracts known as _pterylae_, leaving bare spaces or _apteria_. these pterylae differ considerably in their conformation in different groups of birds, and hence are of service in systematic ornithology. the principal pterylae are as follows:-- (1) the head tract (_pt. capitis_), which embraces the head only. (2) the spinal tract (_pt. spinalis_), which extends the whole length of the vertical column. it is one of the most variable in its modifications, especially in so far as the region from the base of the neck to the tail is concerned. in its simplest form it runs down the back in the form of a band of almost uniform width, but generally it expands considerably in the lumbar region, as in passeres. frequently it is divided into two portions; an upper, terminating in the region of the middle of the back in a fork, and a lower, which commences either as a fork, e.g. plover, barbet, or as a median band, e.g. swallow. very commonly the dorsal region of this tract encloses a more or less extensive featherless space (_apterion_), e.g. swift, auk. while, as a rule, the dorsal region of this tract is relatively narrow, it is in some of great breadth, e.g. grebe, pigeon, coly. (3) the ventral tract (_pt. ventralis_), which presents almost as many variations as the spinal tract. [illustration: fig. 2.--pterylosis of the plover.] in its simplest form it runs from the throat backwards in the form of a median band as far as the base of the neck where it divides, sending a branch to each side of the breast. this branch commonly again divides into a short, broad outer branch which lodges the "flank" feathers, and a long, narrow, inner branch which runs backwards to join its fellow of the opposite side in front of the cloacal aperture. this branch lodges the abdominal feathers. the median space which divides the inner branches of the tract may be continued forwards as far as the middle of the neck, or even up to the throat, e.g. plover. only in a few cases is the neck continuously covered by the fusion of the dorsal and ventral tracts, e.g. flamingo, anseres, ciconidae, pygopodes. for convenience sake the cervical portions of the spinal and ventral tracts are generally regarded as separate tracts, the _pt. colli dorsalis_ and _pt. colli ventralis_ respectively. (4) the humeral tract (_pt. humeralis_), which gives rise to the "scapular" feathers. (5) the femoral tract (_pt. femoralis_), which forms an oblique band across the thigh. (6) the crural tract (_pt. cruralis_), which clothes the rest of the leg. (7) the tail tract (_pt. caudalis_), including the tail feathers and their coverts; and (8) the wing tract (_pt. alaris_). the wing tract presents many peculiar features. each segment--arm, forearm and hand--bears feathers essential to flight, and these are divided into _remiges_, or "quill" feathers, and _tectrices_, or "coverts." the remiges of the arm, more commonly described as "tertiaries," are, technically, collectively known as the _parapteron_ and _hypopteron_, and are composed respectively of long, quill-like feathers forming a double series, the former arranged along the upper, and the latter along the lower aspect of the humerus. they serve to fill up the gap which, in long-winged birds, would otherwise occur during flight between the quill-feathers of the forearm and the body, a gap which would make flight impossible. in short-winged birds these two series are extremely reduced. the remiges range in number from 16, as in humming-birds, to 48 as in the albatross, according, in short, to the length of the wing. but these numerical differences depend, in flying birds, rather upon the length of the forearm, since the quills of the hand never exceed 12 and never fall below 10, though the tenth may be reduced to a mere vestige. the quills of the forearm are known as "secondaries," those of the hand as "primaries." the former are attached by their bases at relatively wide distances apart to the ulna, while the primaries are crowded close together and attached to the skeleton of the hand. the six or seven which rest upon the fused metacarpals ii.-iii. are known as "metacarpals." the next succeeding feather is borne by the phalanx of digit iii. and hence is known as the addigital. phalanx i. of digit ii. always supports two quills, the "middigitals," while the remaining feathers--one or two--are borne by the last phalanx of digit ii. and are known as pre-digitals, while the whole series of primaries are known as the metacarpo-digitals. in their relation one to another the remiges, it must be noted, are always so placed that they overlap one another, the free edge of each, when the wing is seen from its upper surface, being turned towards the tip of the wing. thus, in flight, the air passes through the wing as it is raised, while in the downstroke the feathers are forced together to form a homogeneous surface. birds which fly much have the outer primaries of great length, giving the wing a pointed shape, as in swifts, while in species which fly but little, or frequent thickets, the outer primaries are very short, giving the wing a rounded appearance. this adaptation to environment is commonly lost sight of by taxonomers, who not infrequently use the form of the wing as a factor in classification. the tectrices, or covert feathers of the wing, are arranged in several series, decreasing in size from behind forwards. the number of rows on the dorsal aspect and the method of their overlap, afford characters of general importance in classification. the first row of the series is formed by the _major coverts_; these, like the primaries, have their free-edges directed towards the tip of the wing, and hence are said to have a distal overlap. the next row is formed by the _median coverts_. these, on the forearm, commonly overlap as to the outer half of the row distally, and as to the inner half proximally. on the hand this series is incomplete. beyond the median are four or five rows of coverts known as the _minor coverts_. these may have either a proximal or a distal overlap. the remaining rows of small feathers are known as the _marginal coverts_, and they always have a distal overlap. the three or four large quill-like feathers borne by the thumb form what is known as the "bastard-wing," _ala spuria_. the coverts of the under follow an arrangement similar to that of the upper surface, but the minor coverts are commonly but feebly developed, leaving a more or less bare space which is covered by the great elongation of the marginal series. one noteworthy fact about the coverts of the under side of the wing is that all save the major and median coverts have what answers to the dorsal surfaces of the feather turned towards the body, and what answers to the ventral surface of the feather turned towards the under surface of the wing. in the major and median coverts, however, the ventral surfaces of these feathers are turned ventralwards, that is to say, in the extended wing they, like the remiges, have the ventral surfaces turned downwards or towards the body in the closed wing. but the most remarkable fact in connexion with the pterylosis of the wing is the fact that in all, save the passerine and galliform types, and some few other isolated exceptions, the secondary series of remiges appears always to lack the fifth remex, counting from the wrist inwards, inasmuch as, when such wings are examined, there is always found, in the place of the fifth remex, a pair of major coverts only, while throughout the rest of the series each such pair of coverts embraces a quill. this extraordinary fact was first discovered by the french naturalist z. gerbe, and was later rediscovered by r.s. wray. neither of these, however, was able to offer any explanation thereof. this, however, has since been attempted, simultaneously, by p.c. mitchell and w.p. pycraft. the former has aptly coined the word _diastataxic_ to denote the gap in the series, and _eutaxic_ to denote such wings as have an uninterrupted series of quills. while both authors agree that there is no evidence of any loss in the number of the quills in diastataxic wings, they differ in the interpretation as to which of the two conditions is the more primitive and the means by which the gap has been brought about. according to mitchell the diastataxic is the more primitive condition, and he has conclusively shown a way in which diastataxic wings may become eutaxic. pycraft on the other hand contends that the diastataxic wing has been derived from the eutaxic type, and has produced evidence showing, on the one hand, the method by which this transition is effected, and on the other that by which the diastataxic wing may again recover the eutaxic condition, though in this last particular the evidence adduced by mitchell is much more complete. the matter is, however, one of considerable difficulty, but is well worth further investigation. the wings of struthious birds differ from those of the carinatae, just described, in many ways. all are degenerate and quite useless as organs of flight. in some cases indeed they have become reduced to mere vestiges. those of the ostrich and rhea are the least degraded. in the ostrich ankylosis has prevented the flexion of the hand at the wrist joint so that the quills--primaries and secondaries--form an unbroken series of about forty in number. of these sixteen belong to the primary or metacarpo-digital series, a number exceeding that of any other bird. what the significance of this may be with regard to the primitive wing it is impossible to say at present. the coverts, in their disposition, bear a general resemblance to those of carinate wings; but they differ on account of the great length of the feathers and the absence of any definite overlap. the wing of the south american rhea more nearly resembles that of flying birds since the hand can be flexed at the wrist joint, and the primaries are twelve in number, as in grebes, and some storks, for example. the coverts, as in the african ostrich, are remarkable for their great length, those representing the major series being as long as the remiges, a fact probably due to the shortening of the latter. they are not, however, arranged in quincunx, as is the rule among the carinatae, but in parallel, transverse rows, in which respect they resemble the owls. in both ostrich and rhea, as well as in all the other struthious birds, the under surface of the wing is entirely bare. the wing of the cassowary, emeu and apteryx has undergone complete degeneration; so much so that only a vestige of the hand remains. remiges in the cassowary are represented by a few spine-like shafts--three primaries and two secondaries. these are really hypertrophied calami. this is shown by the fact that in the nestling these remiges have a normal calamus, rhachis and vane; but as development proceeds the rhachis with its vane sloughs off, while the calamus becomes enormously lengthened and solid. in the emeu the wing is less atrophied than in the cassowary, but is not yet completely degenerate. altogether seventeen remiges are represented, of which seven correspond to primaries. since, however, these feathers have each an aftershaft as long as the main shaft--like the rest of the body feathers--it may be that they answer not to remiges, but to major coverts. the wing of apteryx, like that of the cassowary, has become extremely reduced. the remiges are thirteen in number, four of which answer to primaries. these feathers are specially interesting, inasmuch as they retain throughout life a stage corresponding to that seen in the very young cassowary, the calamus being greatly swollen, and supporting a very degenerate rhachis and vane. the penguins afford another object-lesson in degeneration of this kind. here the wing has become transformed into a paddle, clothed on both sides with a covering of small, close-set feathers. a pollex is wanting, as in the cassowary, emeu and apteryx, while it is impossible to say whether remiges are represented or not. authorities.--the following authors should be consulted for further details on this subject:-- _for general reference as to structure, colour, development and pterylosis._--h. gadow, in newton's _dictionary of birds_ (1896); w.p. pycraft, "the interlocking of the barbs of feathers," _natural science_ (1893). _on the colours of feathers._--j.l. bonhote, "on moult and colour change in birds," _ibis_ (1900); a.h. church, "researches on turacin, an animal pigment containing copper," _phil. trans._ clix. (1870), pt. ii.; h. gadow, "the coloration of feathers as affected by structure," _proc. zool. soc._ (1882); newbegin, _colour in nature_ (1898); r.m. strong, "the development of color in the definitive feather," _bull. mus. zool. harvard college_, vol. xl. _on moulting._--j. dwight, "the sequences of plumage and moults of the passerine birds of new york," _annals n.y. acad. sci._, vol. xiii. (1900); w.e. de winton, "on the moulting of the king penguin," _proc. zool. soc._ (1898-1899); w.p. pycraft, "on some points in the anatomy of the emperor and adelie penguins," _report national antarctic expedition_, vol. ii. (1907). _on development of embryonic, nestling and adult feathers._--t.h. studer, "die entwicklung der federn," _inaug.-diss._ (bern, 1873); "beitrage zur entwickl. der feder," _zeitsch. f. wiss. zool._, bd. xxx.; j.t. cunningham, "observations and experiments on japanese long-tailed fowls," _proc. zool. soc._ (1903); h.r. davies, "beitrag zur entwicklung der feder," _morph. jahrb._ xiv. (1888), xv. (1889); w.p. pycraft, "a contribution towards our knowledge of the morphology of the owls," _trans. linn. soc._ (1898); w.p. pycraft, "a contribution towards our knowledge of the pterytography of the megapodii," _report willey's zoological results_, pt. iv. (1900); w.p. pycraft, "nestling birds and some of the problems they present," _british birds_ (1907). _on pterylosis._--h. gadow, "remarks on the numbers and on the phylogenetic development of the remiges of birds," _proc. zool. soc._ (1888); z. gerbe, "sur les plumes du vol et leur mue," _bull. soc. zool. france_, vol. ii. (1877); j.g. goodchild, "the cubital coverts of the euornithae in relation to taxonomy," _proc. roy. phys. edinb._ vol. x. (1890-1891); meijere, "uber die federn der vogel," _morphol. jahrb._ xxiii. (1895); p.c. mitchell, "on so-called 'quintocubitalism' in the wing of birds," _journ. linn. soc. zool._ vol. xxvii. (1899); "on the anatomy of the kingfishers, with special reference to the conditions known as eutaxy and diastataxy," _ibis_ (1901); c.l. nitzsch, "pterytography," _ray soc._ (1867); w.p. pycraft, "some facts concerning the so-called 'aquintocubitalism' of the bird's wing," _journ. linn. soc._ vol. xxvii.; c.j. sundevall, "on the wings of birds," _ibis_ (1886); r.s. wray, "on some points in the morphology of the wings of birds," _proc. zool. soc._ (1887). (w. p. p.) _commercial applications of feathers._--the chief purposes for which feathers become commercially valuable may be comprehended under four divisions:--(1) bed and upholstery feathers; (2) quills for writing; (3) ornamental feathers; and (4) miscellaneous uses of feathers. _bed and upholstery feathers._--the qualities which render feathers available for stuffing beds, cushions, &c., are lightness elasticity, freedom from matting and softness. these are combined in the most satisfactory degree in the feathers of the goose and of several other allied aquatic birds, whose bodies are protected with a warm downy covering. goose feathers and down, when plucked in spring from the living bird, are most esteemed, being at once more elastic, cleaner and less liable to taint than those obtained from the bodies of killed geese. the down of the eider duck, _anas mollissima_, is valued above all other substances for lightness, softness and elasticity; but it has some tendency to mat, and is consequently more used for quilts and in articles of clothing than unmixed for stuffing beds. the feathers of swans, ducks and of the common domestic fowl are also largely employed for beds; but in the case of the latter bird, which is of course non-aquatic, the feathers are harsher and less downy than are those of the natatorial birds generally. feathers which possess strong or stiff shafts cannot without some preliminary preparation be used for stuffing purposes, as the stiff points they present would not only be highly uncomfortable, but would also pierce and cause the escape of the feathers from any covering in which they might be enclosed. the barbs are therefore stripped or cut from these feathers, and when so prepared they, in common with soft feathers and downs, undergo a careful process of drying and cleaning, without which they would acquire an offensive smell, readily attract damp, and harbour vermin. the drying is generally done in highly heated apartments or stoves, and subsequently the feathers are smartly beaten with a stick, and shaken in a sieve to separate all dust and small debris. _quills for writing._--the earliest period at which the use of quill feathers for writing purposes is recorded is the 6th century; and from that time till the introduction of steel pens in the early part of the 19th century they formed the principal writing implements of civilized communities. it has always been from the goose that quills have been chiefly obtained, although the swan, crow, eagle, owl, hawk and turkey all have more or less been laid under contribution. swan quills, indeed are better and more costly than are those from the goose, and for fine lines crow quills have been much employed. only the five outer wing feathers of the goose are useful for writing, and of these the second and third are the best, while left-wing quills are also generally more esteemed than those of the right wing, from the fact that they curve outward and away from the writer using them. quills obtained in spring, by plucking or otherwise, from living birds are by far the best, those taken from dead geese, more especially if fattened, being comparatively worthless. to take away the natural greasiness to remove the superficial and internal pellicles of skin, and to give the necessary qualities of hardness and elasticity, quills require to undergo some processes of preparation. the essential operation consists in heating them, generally in a fine sand-bath, to from 130 deg. to 180 deg. f. according to circumstances, and scraping them under pressure while still soft from heat, whereby the outer skin is removed and the inner shrivelled up. if the heating has been properly effected, the quills are found on cooling to have become hard, elastic and somewhat brittle. while the quills are soft and hot, lozenge-shaped patterns, ornamental designs, and names are easily and permanently impressed on them by pressure with suitable instruments or designs in metal stamps. _ornamental feathers._--feathers do not appear to have been much used, in europe at least, for ornamental purposes till the close of the 13th century. they are found in the conical caps worn in england during the reigns of edward iii. and richard ii.; but not till the period of henry v. did they take their place as a part of military costume. towards the close of the 15th century the fashion of wearing feathers in both civil and military life was carried to an almost ludicrous excess. in the time of henry viii. they first appeared in the bonnets of ladies; and during elizabeth's reign feathers began to occupy an important place as head-dress ornaments of women. from that time down to the present, feathers of endless variety have continued to be leading articles of ornamentation in female head-attire; but, except for military plumes, they have long ceased to be worn in ordinary male costume. at the present day, the feathers of numerous birds are, in one way or another, turned to account by ladies for the purpose of personal ornament. ostrich feathers, however, hold, as they have always held, a pre-eminent position among ornamental feathers; and the ostrich is the only bird which may be said to be reared exclusively for the sake of its feathers. ostrich farming is one of the established industries of south africa, and is also practised in kordofan and other semi-desert regions of north africa, in argentina, and in arizona and california in north america. the feathers are generally plucked from the living animal--a process which does not appear to cause any great inconvenience. in the male bird, the long feathers of the rump and wings are white, and the short feathers of the body are jet black; while the rump and wing feathers of the female are white tinged with a dusky grey, the general body colour being the latter hue. the feathers of the male are consequently much more valuable than those of the female, and they are separately classified in commerce. the art of the plumassier embraces the cleaning, bleaching, dyeing, curling and making up of ostrich and other plumes and feathers. white feathers are simply washed in bundles in hot soapy water, run through pure warm water, exposed to sulphurous fumes for bleaching, thereafter blued with indigo solution, rinsed in pure cold water, and hung up to dry. when dry the shafts are pared or scraped down to give the feathers greater flexibility, and the barbs are curled by drawing them singly over the face of a blunt knife or by the cautious application of a heated iron. dull-coloured feathers are usually dyed black. feathers which are dyed light colours are first bleached by exposure in the open air. much ingenuity is displayed in the making up of plumes, with the general result of producing the appearance of full, rich, and long feathers from inferior varieties and from scraps and fragments of ostrich feathers; and so dexterously can factitious plumes be prepared that only an experienced person is able to detect the fabrication. in addition to those of the ostrich, the feathers of certain other birds form articles of steady commercial demand. among these are the feathers of the south american ostrich, _rhea americana_, the marabout feathers of india obtained from _leptoptilos argala_ and _l. javanica_, the aigrettes of the heron, the feathers of the various species of birds of paradise, and of numerous species of humming-birds. swan-down and the skins of various penguins and grebes and of the albatross are used, like fur, for muffs and collarettes. the chinese excel in the preparation of artificial flowers and other ornaments from bright natural-coloured or dyed feathers; and the french also skilfully work fragments of feathers into bouquets of artificial flowers, imitation butterflies, &c. _miscellaneous applications of feathers._--quills of various sizes are extensively employed as holders for the sable and camel hair brushes used by artists, &c. feather brushes and dusters are made from the wing-feathers of the domestic fowl and other birds; those of a superior quality, under the name of vulture dusters, being really made of american ostrich feathers. a minor application of feathers is found in the dressing of artificial fly-hooks for fishing. as steel pens came into general use it became an object of considerable importance to find applications for the supplanted goose-quills, and a large field of employment for them was found in the preparation of toothpicks. (j. pa; w. p. p.)