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    "source_title": "Encyclopaedia Britannica (1911)",
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    "chunk_id": "1911:expropriation:e912fe5ad62d",
    "title": "EXPROPRIATION",
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    "verified_text": "expropriation, the taking away or depriving of property (late lat. _expropriare_, to take away, _proprium_, i.e. that which is one's own). the term is particularly applied to the compulsory acquisition of private property by the state or other public authority. expulsion (lat. _expulsio_, from _expellere_), the act of driving out, or of removing a person from the membership of a body or the holding of an office, or of depriving him of the right of attending a meeting, &c. in the united kingdom the house of commons can by resolution expel a member. such resolution cannot be questioned by any court of law. but expulsion is only resorted to in cases where members are guilty of offences rendering them unfit for a seat in the house, such as being in open rebellion, being guilty of forgery, perjury, fraud or breach of trust, misappropriation of public money, corruption, conduct unbecoming the character of an officer and a gentleman, &c. it is customary to order the member, if absent, to attend in his place, before an order is made for his expulsion (see may, _parliamentary practice_, 1906, p. 56 seq.). municipal corporations or other local government bodies have no express power to expel a member, except in such cases where the law declares the member to have vacated his seat, or where power is given by statute to declare the member's seat vacant. in the cases of officers and servants of the crown, tenure varies with the nature of the office. some officials hold their offices _ad vitam aut culpam or dum bene se gesserunt_, others can be dismissed at any time and without reason assigned and without compensation. in the case of membership of a voluntary association (club, &c.) the right of expulsion depends upon the rules, and must be exercised in good faith. courts of justice have jurisdiction to prevent the improper expulsion of the member of a voluntary association where that member has a right of property in the association. in the case of meetings, where the meeting is one of a public body, any person not a member of the body is entitled to be present only on sufferance, and may be expelled on a resolution of the body. in the case of ordinary public meetings those who convene the meeting stand in the position of licensors to those attending and may revoke the licence and expel any person who creates disorder or makes himself otherwise objectionable. _expulsion of aliens._--under the naturalization act of 1870, the last of the civil disqualifications affecting aliens in england was removed. the political disqualifications which remained only applied to electoral rights. in the very exceptional cases in which it was retained in the statute book, expulsion was considered to have fallen into desuetude, but it has been revived by the aliens act of 1905 (5 edw. vii. c. 13). under this act powers are given to the secretary of state to make an order requiring an alien to leave the united kingdom within a time fixed by the order and thereafter to remain outside the united kingdom, subject to certain conditions, provided it is certified to him that the alien has been convicted of any felony or misdemeanour or other offence for which the court has power to impose imprisonment without the option of a fine, &c., or that he has been sentenced in a foreign country with which there is an extradition treaty, for a crime not being an offence of a political character. there are also provisions applicable within one year, after the alien has entered the united kingdom in the case of pauper aliens. precautions are taken to prevent, as far as possible, any abuse of the power of expulsion. under the french law of expulsion (december 3, 1849) there are no such precautions, the minister of the interior having an absolute discretion to order any foreigner as a measure of public policy to leave french territory and in fact to have him taken immediately to the frontier. extension (lat. _ex_, out; _tendere_, to stretch), in general, the action of straining or stretching out. it is usually employed metaphorically (cf. the phrase an \"extension of time,\" a period allowed in excess of what has been agreed upon). it is used as a technical term in logic to describe the total number of objects to which a given term may be applied; thus the meaning of the term \"king\" in \"extension\" means the kings of england, italy, spain, &c. (cf. denotation), while in \"intension\" it means the attributes which taken together make up the idea of kinghood (see connotation). in psychology the literal sense of extension is retained, i.e. \"spread-outness.\" the perception of space by the senses of sight and touch, as opposed to semi-spatial perceptions by smell and hearing, is that of \"continuous expanse composed of positions separated and connected by distances\" (stout); to this the term \"extension\" is applied. the perception of separate objects involves position and distance, but these taken together are not extension, which necessarily implies continuity. to move one's finger along the keys of a piano gives both the position and the distance of the keys; to move it along the frame gives the idea of extension. by expanding this idea we obtain the conception of all space as an extended whole. to this perception are necessary both form and material. it should be observed the actual quality of a stimulus (rough, smooth, dry, &c.) has nothing to do with the spatial perception as such, which is concerned purely with what is known as \"local signature.\" the elementary undifferentiated sensation excited by the stimuli exerted by a continuous whole is known as its \"extensive quantity\" or \"extensity.\" the term has to do not with the kind of object which excites the sensation, but simply with the vague massiveness of the latter. as such it is distinguishable in thought from extension, though it is not easy to say whether and if so how far the quantitative aspect of space can exist apart from spatial order. extensity as an element in the complex of extension must be carefully distinguished from intensity. mere increase of pressure implies increase of intensity of sensation; to increase the extensity the _area_, so to speak, of the exciting stimulus must be increased. thus the extensity (also called \"voluminousness,\" or \"massiveness\") of the sensation produced by a roll of thunder is greater than that produced by a whistle or the bark of a dog. it should be observed that this application of the idea of extensity to sensation in general, rather than to the matter which is the exciting stimulus, is only an analogy, an attempt to explain a common psychic phenomenon by terminology which is intrinsically suitable to the physical. as a natural consequence the term represents different shades of meaning in different treatises, verging sometimes towards the physical, sometimes towards the psychic, meaning. in connexion with extension elaborate psycho-physical experiments have been devised,.e.g. with the object of comparing the accuracy of tactual and visual perception and discovering what are the least differences which each can observe. at a distance two lights appear as one, just as two stars distinguishable through a telescope are one to the naked eye (see vision): again if the points of a compass are brought close together and pressed lightly on the skin the sensation, though vague and diffused, is a single one. see psychology and works there quoted; also space and time. extenuating circumstances. this expression is used in law with reference to crimes, to describe cases in which, though an offence has been committed without legal justification or excuse, its gravity, from the point of view of punishment or moral opprobrium, is mitigated or reduced by reason of the facts leading up to or attending the commission of the offence. according to english procedure, the jury has no power to determine the punishment to be awarded for an offence. the sentence, with certain exceptions in capital cases, is within the sole discretion of the judge, subject to the statutory prescriptions as to the kind and maximum of punishment. it is common practice for juries to add to their verdict, guilty or not guilty, a rider recommending the accused to mercy on the ground of grave provocation received, or other circumstances which in their view should mitigate the penalty. this form of rider is often added on a verdict of guilty of wilful murder, a crime as to which the judge has no discretion as to punishment, but the recommendation is sent to the home office for consideration in advising as to exercise of the prerogative of mercy. quite independently of any recommendation by the jury, the judge is entitled to take into account matters proved during the trial, or laid before him after verdict, as a guide to him in determining the quantum of punishment. under the french law (_code d'instruction criminelle_, art. 345), it is the sole right and the duty of a jury in a criminal case to pronounce whether or not the commission of the offence was attended by extenuating circumstances (_circonstances attenuantes_). they are not bound to say anything about the matter, but the whole or the majority may qualify the verdict by finding extenuation, and if they do, the powers of the court to impose the maximum punishment are taken away and the sentence to be pronounced is reduced in accordance with the scale laid down in art. 463 of the _code penal_. the most important result of this rule is to enable a jury to prevent the infliction of capital punishment for murder. in cases of what is termed \"crime passionel,\" french juries, when they do not acquit, almost invariably find extenuation; and a like verdict has become common even in the case of cold-blooded and sordid murders, owing to objections to capital punishment.",
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