EUGENIUS II.

eugenius ii., pope, was a native of rome, and was chosen to succeed pascal i. in 824. his election did not take place without difficulty. eugenius was the candidate of the nobles, and the clerical faction brought forward a competitor. but the monk wala, the representative of the emperor lothair, succeeded in arranging matters, and eugenius was elected. lothair, however, came to rome in person, and took advantage of this opportunity to redress many abuses in the papal administration, to vest the election of the pope in the nobles, and to confirm the statute that no pope should be consecrated until his election had the approval of the emperor. a council which assembled at rome during the reign of eugenius passed several enactments for the restoration of church discipline, took measures for the foundation of schools and chapters, and decided against priests wearing a secular dress or engaging in secular occupations. eugenius also adopted various provisions for the care of the poor and of widows and orphans. he died in 827. (l. d.*) eugenius iii. (bernardo paganelli), pope from the 15th of february 1145 to the 8th of july 1153, a native of pisa, was abbot of the cistercian monastery of st anastasius at rome when suddenly elected to succeed lucius ii. his friend and instructor, bernard of clairvaux, the most influential ecclesiastic of the time, remonstrated against his election on account of his "innocence and simplicity," but bernard soon acquiesced and continued to be the mainstay of the papacy throughout eugenius's pontificate. it was to eugenius that bernard addressed his famous work _de consideratione_. immediately after his election, the roman senators demanded the pope's renunciation of temporal power. he refused and fled to farfa, where he was consecrated on the 17th of february. by treaty of december 1145 he recognized the republic under his suzerainty, substituted a papal prefect for the "patrician" and returned to rome. the celebrated schismatic, arnold of brescia, however, put himself again at the head of the party opposed to the temporal power of the papacy, re-established the patricianate, and forced the pope to leave rome. eugenius had already, on hearing of the fall of edessa, addressed a letter to louis vii. of france (december 1145), announcing the second crusade and granting plenary indulgence under the usual conditions to those who would take the cross; and in january 1147 he journeyed to france to further preparations for the holy war and to seek aid in the constant feuds at rome. after holding synods at paris, reims and trier, he returned to italy in june 1148 and took up his residence at viterbo. the following month he excommunicated arnold of brescia in a synod at cremona, and thenceforth devoted most of his energies to the recovery of his see. as the result of negotiations between frederick barbarossa and the romans, eugenius was finally enabled to return to rome in december 1152, but died in the following july. he was succeeded by anastasius iv. eugenius retained the stoic virtues of monasticism throughout his stormy career, and was deeply reverenced for his personal character. his tomb in st peter's acquired fame for miraculous cures, and he was pronounced blessed by pius ix. in 1872. the chief sources for the career of eugenius iii. are his letters in j.p. migne, _patrol. lat_., vols. 106, 180, 182, and in _bibliotheque de l'ecole des chartes_, vol. 57 (paris, 1896); the life by cardinal boso in j.m. watterich, _pontif. roman. vitae_, vol. 2; and the life by john of salisbury in _monumenta germaniae historica. scriptores_, vol. 20. see j. langen, _geschichte der roemischen kirche von gregor vii. bis innocenz iii_. (bonn, 1893); f. gregorovius, _rome in the middle ages_, vol. 4, trans. by mrs g.w. hamilton (london, 1900-1902); k.j. von hefele, _conciliengeschichte_, bd. 5, 2nd ed.; jaffe-wattenbach, _regesta pontif_. roman. (1885-1888); m. jocham, _geschichte des lebens u. der verehrung des seligen papstes eugen iii_. (augsburg, 1873); g. sainati, _vita del beato eugenio iii_ (pisa, 1868); j. jastrow and g. winter, _deutsche geschichte im zeitalter der hohenstaufen_, i. (stuttgart, 1897); c. neumann, _bernhard von clairvaux u. die anfaenge der zweiten kreuzzuges_ (heidelberg, 1882); b. kugler, _analekten zur geschichte des zweiten kreuzzugs_ (tuebingen, 1878, 1883). (c. h. ha.) eugenius iv. (gabriel condulmieri), pope from the 3rd of march 1431 to the 23rd of february 1447, was born at venice of a merchant family in 1383. he entered the celestine order and came into prominence during the pontificate of his uncle, gregory xii., by whom he was appointed bishop of siena, papal treasurer, protonotary, cardinal-priest of st marco e st clemente, and later cardinal-priest of sta maria in trastevere. his violent measures, as pope, against the relations of his predecessor, martin v., at once involved him in a serious contest with the powerful house of colonna. but by far the most important feature of eugenius's pontificate was the great struggle between pope and council. on the 23rd of july 1431 his legate opened the council of basel which had been convoked by martin, but, distrustful of its purposes and moved by the small attendance, the pope issued a bull on the 18th of december 1431, dissolving the council and calling a new one to meet in eighteen months at bologna. the council refused to dissolve, renewed the revolutionary resolutions by which the council of constance had been declared superior to the pope, and cited eugenius to appear at basel. a compromise was arranged by sigismund, who had been crowned emperor at rome on the 31st of may 1433, by which the pope recalled the bull of dissolution, and, reserving the rights of the holy see, acknowledged the council as ecumenical (15th of december 1433). the establishment of an insurrectionary republic at rome drove him into exile in may 1434, and, although the city was restored to obedience in the following october, he remained at florence and bologna. meanwhile the struggle with the council broke out anew. eugenius at length convened a rival council at ferrara on the 8th of january 1438 and excommunicated the prelates assembled at basel. the result was that the latter formally deposed him as a heretic on the 25th of june 1439, and in the following november elected the ambitious amadeus viii., duke of savoy, antipope under the title of felix v. the conduct of france and germany seemed to warrant this action, for charles vii. had introduced the decrees of the council of basel, with slight changes, into the former country through the pragmatic sanction of bourges (7th of july 1438), and the diet of mainz had deprived the pope of most of his rights in the latter country (26th of march 1439). at florence, whither the council of ferrara had been transferred on account of an outbreak of the plague, was effected in july 1439 a union with the greeks, which, as the result of political necessities, proved but temporary. this union was followed by others of even less stability. eugenius signed an agreement with the armenians on the 22nd of november 1439, and with a part of the jacobites in 1443; and in 1445 he received the nestorians and maronites. he did his best to stem the turkish advance, pledging one-fifth of the papal income to the crusade which set out in 1443, but which met with overwhelming defeat. his rival, felix v., meanwhile obtained small recognition, and the latter's ablest adviser, aeneas sylvius piccolomini, made peace with eugenius in 1442. the pope's recognition of the claims to naples of king alphonso of aragon withdrew the last important support from the council of basel, and enabled him to make a victorious entry into rome on the 28th of september 1443, after an exile of nearly ten years. his protests against the pragmatic sanction of bourges were ineffectual, but by means of the concordat of the princes, negotiated by piccolomini with the electors in february 1447, the whole of germany declared against the antipope. although his pontificate had been so stormy and unhappy that he is said to have regretted on his death-bed that he ever left his monastery, nevertheless eugenius's victory over the council of basel and his efforts in behalf of church unity contributed greatly to break down the conciliar movement and restore the papacy to the position it had held before the great schism. eugenius was dignified in demeanour, but inexperienced and vacillating in action and excitable in temper. bitter in his hatred of heresy, he yet displayed great kindness to the poor. he laboured to reform the monastic orders, especially the franciscan, and was never guilty of nepotism. although a type of the austere monk in his private life, he was a sincere friend of art and learning, and in 1431 re-established finally the university at rome. he died on the 23rd of february 1447, and was succeeded by nicholas v. see l. pastor, _history of the popes_, vol. 1., trans, by f.i. antrobus (london, 1899); m. creighton, _history of the papacy_, vol. 3 (london, 1899); f. gregorovius, _rome in the middle ages_, vol. 7, trans. by mrs g.w. hamilton (london, 1900-1902); k.j. von hefele, _conciliengeschichte_, bd. 7, 2nd ed.; h.h. milman, _latin christianity_, vol. 8 (london, 1896); g. voigt, _enea silvio de piccolomini_, bd. 1-3 (berlin, 1856); _aus den annaten-registern der paepste eugen iv., pius ii., paul ii. u. sixtus iv_., ed. by k. hayn (cologne, 1896). there is an admirable article by tschackert in hauck's _realencyklopaedie_, 3rd ed. vol. 5. (c. h. ha.) eugenol (_allyl guaiacol, eugenic acid_), c10h12o2, an odoriferous principle; it is the chief constituent of oil of cloves, and occurs in many other essential oils. it can be synthetically prepared by the reduction of coniferyl alcohol, (ho)(ch3o)c6h3.ch:ch.ch2oh, which occurs in combination with glucose in the glucoside coniferin, c16h22o8. it is a colourless oil boiling at 247 deg. c., and having a spicy odour. on oxidation with potassium permanganate it gives homovanillin, vanillin, &c.; with chromic acid in acetic acid solution it is converted into carbon dioxide and acetic acid, whilst nitric acid oxidizes it to oxalic acid. by the action of alkalis it is converted into iso-eugenol, which on oxidation yields vanillin, the odorous principle of vanilla (q.v.). this transformation of allyl phenols into propenyl phenols is very general (see _ber_., 1889, 22, p. 2747; 1890, 23, p. 862). alkali fusion of eugenol gives protocatechuic acid. the amount of eugenol in oil of cloves can be estimated by acetylation, in presence of pyridine (a. verley and fr. baelsing, _ber._, 1901, 34, p. 3359). _chavibetol_, an isomer of eugenol, occurs in the ethereal oil obtained from _piper betle_. the structural relations are: oh oh oh och3 /\ /\ /\ /\ / \och3 / \och3 / \och3 / \ | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | \ / \ / \ / \ / \/ \/ \/ \/ ch2.ch:ch2 ch:ch.ch3 cho ch.ch:ch2 eugenol iso-eugenol vanillin chavibetol euhemerus [euemerus, evemerus], greek mythographer, born at messana, in sicily (others say at chios, tegea, or messene in peloponnese), flourished about 300 b.c., and lived at the court of cassander. he is chiefly known by his _sacred history_ ([greek: hiera anagraphe]), a philosophical romance, based upon archaic inscriptions which he claimed to have found during his travels in various parts of greece. he particularly relies upon an account of early history which he discovered on a golden pillar in a temple on the island of panchaea when on a voyage round the coast of arabia, undertaken at the request of cassander, his friend and patron. there is apparently no doubt that this island is imaginary. in this work he for the first time systematized an old oriental (perhaps phoenician) method of interpreting the popular myths, asserting that the gods who formed the chief objects of popular worship had been originally heroes and conquerors, who had thus earned a claim to the veneration of their subjects. this system spread widely, and the early christians especially appealed to it as a confirmation of their belief that ancient mythology was merely an aggregate of fables of human invention. euhemerus was a firm upholder of the cyrenaic philosophy, and by many ancient writers he was regarded as an atheist. his work was translated by ennius into latin, but the work itself is lost, and of the translation only a few fragments, and these very short, have come down to us. this rationalizing method of interpretation is known as euhemerism. there is no doubt that it contains an element of truth; as among the romans the gradual deification of ancestors and the apotheosis of emperors were prominent features of religious development, so among primitive peoples it is possible to trace the evolution of family and tribal gods from great chiefs and warriors. all theories of religion which give prominence to ancestor worship and the cult of the dead are to a certain extent euhemeristic. but as the sole explanation of the origin of the idea of gods it is not accepted by students of comparative religion. it had, however, considerable vogue in france. in the 18th century the abbe banier, in his _mythologie et la fable expliquees par l'histoire_, was frankly euhemeristic; other leading euhemerists were clavier, sainte-croix, raoul rochette, em. hoffmann and to a great extent herbert spencer. see raymond de block, _evhemere, son lime et sa doctrine_ (mons, 1876); g.n. nemethy, _euhemeri relliquiae_ (budapest, 1889); gauss, _quaestiones euhemereae_ (kempen, 1860); otto sieroka, _de euhemero_ (1869); susemihl, _geschichte der griechischen litteratur in der alexandrinerzeit_, vol. i. (leipzig, 1891); and works on comparative religion and mythology. eulenspiegel [ulenspiegel], till, the name of a german folk-hero, and the title of a popular german chapbook on the subject, of the beginning of the 16th century. the oldest existing german text of the book was printed at strassburg in 1515 (_ein kurtzweilig lesen von dyl vlenspiegel geboren vss dem land zu brunsswick_), and again in 1519. this is not in the original dialect, which was undoubtedly low saxon, but in high german, the translation having been formerly ascribed--but on insufficient evidence--to the catholic satirist thomas murner. its hero, till eulenspiegel or ulenspiegel, the son of a peasant, was born at kneitlingen in brunswick, at the end of the 13th or at the beginning of the 14th century. he died, according to tradition, at moelln near luebeck in 1350. the jests and practical jokes ascribed to him were collected--if we may believe a statement in one of the old prints--in 1483; but in any case the edition of 1515 was not even the oldest high german edition. eulenspiegel himself is locally associated with the low german area extending from magdeburg to hanover, and from lueneburg to the harz mountains. he is the wily peasant who loves to exercise his wit and roguery on the tradespeople of the towns, above all, on the innkeepers; but priests, noblemen, even princes, are also among his victims. his victories are often pointless, more often brutal; he stoops without hesitation to scurrility and obscenity, while of the finer, sharper wit which the humanists and the italians introduced into the anecdote, he has little or nothing. his jests are coarsely practical, and his satire turns on class distinctions. in fact, this chapbook might be described as the retaliation of the peasant on the townsman who in the 14th and 15th centuries had begun to look down upon the country boor as a natural inferior. in spite of its essentially low german character, _eulenspiegel_ was extremely popular in other lands, and, at an early date, was translated into dutch, french, english, latin, danish, swedish, bohemian and polish. in england, "howleglas" (scottish, _holliglas_) was long a familiar figure; his jests were rapidly adapted to english conditions, and appropriated in the collections associated with robin goodfellow, scogan and others. ben johnson refers to him as "howleglass" and "ulenspiegel" in his _masque of the fortunate isles, poetaster, alchemist_ and _sad shepherd_, and a verse by taylor the "water poet" would seem to imply that the "owliglasse" was a familiar popular type. till eulenspiegel's "merry pranks" have been made the subject of a well-known orchestral symphony by richard strauss. in france, it may be noted, the name has given rise to the words _espiegle_ and _espieglerie_. the strassburg edition of 1515 (british museum) has been reprinted by h. knust in the _neudrucke deutscher literaturwerke des 16. und 17. jahrh._ no. 55-56 (1885); that of 1519 by j.m. lappenberg, _dr thomas murners ulenspiegel_ (1854). w. scherer ("die anfaenge des prosaromans in deutschland," in _quellen und forschungen_, vol. xxi., 1877, pp. 28 ff. and 78 ff.) has shown that there must have been a still earlier high german edition. see also c. walter in _niederdeutsches jahrbuch_, xix. (1894), pp. 1 ff. further editions appeared at cologne, printed by servais kruffter, undated (reproduced in photo-lithography from the two imperfect copies in berlin and vienna, 1865); erfurt, 1532, 1533-1537 and 1538; cologne, 1539; strassburg, 1539; augsburg, 1540 and 1541; strassburg, 1543; frankfort on the main, 1545; strassburg, 1551; cologne, 1554, &c. johann fischart published an adaptation in verse, _der eulenspiegel reimensweis_ (strassburg, 1571), k. simrock a modernization in 1864 (2nd ed., 1878); there is also one by k. pannier in reclam's _universalbibliothek_ (1883). the earliest translation was that into dutch, printed by hoochstraten at antwerp (royal lib., copenhagen); it is undated, but may have appeared as early as 1512. see facsimile reprint by m. nijhoff (the hague, 1898). this served as the basis for the first french version: _ulenspiegel, de sa vie, de ses oeuvres et merveilleuses aduentures par luy faictes ... nouuellement translate et corrige de flamant en francoys_ (paris, 1532). reprint, edited by p. jannet (1882). this was followed by upwards of twenty french editions down to the beginning of the 18th century. the latest translation is that by j.c. delepierre (bruges, 1835 and 1840). cf. prudentius van duyse, _etude litteraire sur tiel l'espiegle_ (ghent, 1858). the first complete english translation was also made from the dutch, and bears the title: _here beginneth a merye jest of a man called howleglas_, &c., printed by copland in three editions, probably between 1548 and 1560. reprint by f. ouvry (1867). this, however, was itself merely a reprint of a still older english edition (1518?), of which the british museum possesses fragments. reprinted by f. brie, _eulenspiegel in england_ (1903). in 1720 appeared _the german rogue, or the life and merry adventures of tiel eulenspiegel. made english from the high-dutch_; and an english illustrated edition, adapted by k.r.h. mackenzie in 1880 (2nd ed., 1890). on eulenspiegel in england, see especially c.h. herford, _studies in the literary relations of england and germany in the sixteenth century_ (1888), pp. 242 ff., and f. brie's work already referred to. (j. g. r.)