EARTH

earth, figure of the. the determination of the figure of the earth is a problem of the highest importance in astronomy, inasmuch as the diameter of the earth is the unit to which all celestial distances must be referred. _historical._ reasoning from the uniform level appearance of the horizon, the variations in altitude of the circumpolar stars as one travels towards the north or south, the disappearance of a ship standing out to sea, and perhaps other phenomena, the earliest astronomers regarded the earth as a sphere, and they endeavoured to ascertain its dimensions. aristotle relates that the mathematicians had found the circumference to be 400,000 stadia (about 46,000 miles). but eratosthenes (c. 250 b.c.) appears to have been the first who entertained an accurate idea of the principles on which the determination of the figure of the earth really depends, and attempted to reduce them to practice. his results were very inaccurate, but his method is the same as that which is followed at the present day--depending, in fact, on the comparison of a line measured on the earth's surface with the corresponding arc of the heavens. he observed that at syene in upper egypt, on the day of the summer solstice, the sun was exactly vertical, whilst at alexandria at the same season of the year its zenith distance was 7 deg. 12', or one-fiftieth of the circumference of a circle. he assumed that these places were on the same meridian; and, reckoning their distance apart as 5000 stadia, he inferred that the circumference of the earth was 250,000 stadia (about 29,000 miles). a similar attempt was made by posidonius, who adopted a method which differed from that of eratosthenes only in using a star instead of the sun. he obtained 240,000 stadia (about 27,600 miles) for the circumference. ptolemy in his _geography_ assigns the length of the degree as 500 stadia. the arabs also investigated the question of the earth's magnitude. the caliph abdallah al mamun (a.d. 814), having fixed on a spot in the plains of mesopotamia, despatched one company of astronomers northwards and another southwards, measuring the journey by rods, until each found the altitude of the pole to have changed one degree. but the result of this measurement does not appear to have been very satisfactory. from this time the subject seems to have attracted no attention until about 1500, when jean fernel (1497-1558), a frenchman, measured a distance in the direction of the meridian near paris by counting the number of revolutions of the wheel of a carriage. his astronomical observations were made with a triangle used as a quadrant, and his resulting length of a degree was very near the truth. willebrord snell[1] substituted a chain of triangles for actual linear measurement. he measured his base line on the frozen surface of the meadows near leiden, and measured the angles of his triangles, which lay between alkmaar and bergen-op-zoom, with a quadrant and semicircles. he took the precaution of comparing his standard with that of the french, so that his result was expressed in toises (the length of the toise is about 6.39 english ft.). the work was recomputed and reobserved by p. von musschenbroek in 1729. in 1637 an englishman, richard norwood, published a determination of the figure of the earth in a volume entitled _the seaman's practice, contayning a fundamentall probleme in navigation experimentally verified, namely, touching the compasse of the earth and sea and the quantity of a degree in our english measures_. he observed on the 11th of june 1633 the sun's meridian altitude in london as 62 deg. 1', and on the 6th of june 1635, his meridian altitude in york as 59 deg. 33'. he measured the distance between these places partly with a chain and partly by pacing. by this means, through compensation of errors, he arrived at 367,176 ft. for the degree--a very fair result. the application of the telescope to angular instruments was the next important step. jean picard was the first who in 1669, with the telescope, using such precautions as the nature of the operation requires, measured an arc of meridian. he measured with wooden rods a base line of 5663 toises, and a second or base of verification of 3902 toises; his triangulation extended from malvoisine, near paris, to sourdon, near amiens. the angles of the triangles were measured with a quadrant furnished with a telescope having cross-wires. the difference of latitude of the terminal stations was determined by observations made with a sector on a star in cassiopeia, giving 1 deg. 22' 55" for the amplitude. the terrestrial measurement gave 78,850 toises, whence he inferred for the length of the degree 57,060 toises. hitherto geodetic observations had been confined to the determination of the magnitude of the earth considered as a sphere, but a discovery made by jean richer (d. 1696) turned the attention of mathematicians to its deviation from a spherical form. this astronomer, having been sent by the academy of sciences of paris to the island of cayenne, in south america, for the purpose of investigating the amount of astronomical refraction and other astronomical objects, observed that his clock, which had been regulated at paris to beat seconds, lost about two minutes and a half daily at cayenne, and that in order to bring it to measure mean solar time it was necessary to shorten the pendulum by more than a line (about {1/12}th of an in.). this fact, which was scarcely credited till it had been confirmed by the subsequent observations of varin and deshayes on the coasts of africa and america, was first explained in the third book of newton's _principia_, who showed that it could only be referred to a diminution of gravity arising either from a protuberance of the equatorial parts of the earth and consequent increase of the distance from the centre, or from the counteracting effect of the centrifugal force. about the same time (1673) appeared christian huygens' _de horologio oscillatorio_, in which for the first time were found correct notions on the subject of centrifugal force. it does not, however, appear that they were applied to the theoretical investigation of the figure of the earth before the publication of newton's _principia_. in 1690 huygens published his _de causa gravitatis_, which contains an investigation of the figure of the earth on the supposition that the attraction of every particle is towards the centre. between 1684 and 1718 j. and d. cassini, starting from picard's base, carried a triangulation northwards from paris to dunkirk and southwards from paris to collioure. they measured a base of 7246 toises near perpignan, and a somewhat shorter base near dunkirk; and from the northern portion of the arc, which had an amplitude of 2 deg. 12' 9", obtained for the length of a degree 56,960 toises; while from the southern portion, of which the amplitude was 6 deg. 18' 57", they obtained 57,097 toises. the immediate inference from this was that, the degree diminishing with increasing latitude, the earth must be a prolate spheroid. this conclusion was totally opposed to the theoretical investigations of newton and huygens, and accordingly the academy of sciences of paris determined to apply a decisive test by the measurement of arcs at a great distance from each other--one in the neighbourhood of the equator, the other in a high latitude. thus arose the celebrated expeditions of the french academicians. in may 1735 louis godin, pierre bouguer and charles marie de la condamine, under the auspices of louis