DUTCH WARS

dutch wars, a convenient general title for a series of european wars between 1652 and 1678, which centred chiefly upon the political and commercial relations of the netherlands with england and france. by englishmen the term "dutch wars" is usually applied to the two purely naval wars of 1652-53 and 1663-67 and to the anglo-dutch or naval part of the war that began in 1672. but the last of these was part of a much wider struggle by land, known to continental historians as the dutch war of 1672-78, and the second part of this article deals with their struggle on the various frontiers of france, which was illustrated by the genius of turenne and conde. i. naval operations _first dutch war (1652-53)._--though political causes were at work, the main incentive to hostility between the peoples was commercial rivalry. it was therefore natural that their first encounters should have taken place between fleets engaged in convoying trade, or in endeavouring to intercept the trade of their enemy. blows were exchanged before war was formally declared. on the 12th of may 1652 an english officer, captain young, stopped a dutch convoy near the start in order to enforce the salute to the english flag, which england then demanded from all who used the seas round her coast. the demand was resisted, and was only yielded to after a sharp conflict. though the dutch were still endeavouring to negotiate a peace with the council of state which governed in the british isles after the execution of king charles i., they made ready for war. in may forty sail of their war-ships appeared off dover under command of martin harpertzoon tromp--then the best known of their admirals. there were then 8 british ships in dover under rear-admiral nicholas bourne, and 15 near rye under robert blake, a member of parliament, and soldier who had gained a great reputation in the civil war. blake came into the straits of dover with his ships, and on the 19th of may a sharp collision took place between him and tromp. bourne joined his countryman after the action began. the encounter, which the dutch attributed to the english, and the english to the dutch, made war inevitable, even if the relations of the two powers had allowed of the maintenance of peace. the first operations on both sides took the form of attacks on trade. sir george ayscue, who had lately returned from the west indies, whither he had been sent to subdue the royalist party in barbados, had a sharp encounter with a dutch convoy while on his way up channel to the downs, and had captured several prizes. the council of state, being mainly anxious to destroy the dutch trade and fisheries, began by reinforcing blake, and sending him north to scatter the dutch herring fleet. he had with him 60 vessels. ayscue remained in the downs with 16. soon after blake had gone, tromp appeared in the downs with a stronger force and threatened an attack on ayscue. want of wind prevented the operation. tromp was also most intent on collecting the home-coming dutch convoys, and seeing them safe into port. he therefore also sailed north to meet the baltic trade. no meeting, however, took place between him and blake, while bad weather scattered the dutch. their herring fishery was ruined for the year, and the outcry against tromp was loud. he was notoriously no friend to the loevenstein party then prevalent in holland, and was displaced, his place being taken by cornelius de witt and michiel adriaanzoon de ruyter. de ruyter was sent into the channel to convoy the outward-bound convoys, and meet the home-coming trade. on the 16th of august he had an encounter off plymouth with ayscue, whom he worsted, and then cruised at the land's end. the failure of ayscue, who was not employed again in this war, induced the council of state to send blake, who had now returned from the north, into the channel. he was not, however, more successful. his fleet was allowed to become scattered, and the dutchman brought his convoy back safe after a partial action with penn, blake's subordinate, on the 16th of august. so far the operations had been confined to commerce destroying, or to the protection of trade by convoy. the next moves were more purely warlike. in the 27th of september the dutch appeared in force off the mouth of the thames, and blake, whose fleet was collected in the downs, stood to sea. on the 28th of september the first real battle of the war was fought off the kentish knock, a shoal opposite the coast of essex. the english fleet standing to the north passed to west of the dutch, and then turned. in the close engagement which followed, the dutch were defeated. they did not fight well, and their failure was attributed in part to the discontent of their seamen with the removal of tromp, and the unpopularity of de witt. the states-general found it necessary to replace tromp, who was at once sent to sea, again with the charge of seeing the outward-bound trade down channel, and waiting for the homeward-bound. blake had not remained on the coast of holland, for the council of state was still almost as intent as the dutch on convoying trade or molesting the enemy's. it brought its fleet back, and then divided the ships, sending some to the north with penn, and keeping the others, 40 in all, with blake in the downs. thus when tromp appeared "at the back of the goodwins" with a fleet of 80 war-ships and a crowd of merchant vessels on the 29th of november, blake was not in a position to engage him with any assured prospect of success. but he made the attempt, and a hot engagement took place off dungeness on the 30th. two english vessels were taken, and the loss would have been greater if some of the english captains had not shown themselves backward. many of the ships were merchant vessels pressed or hired, and commanded by their own skippers, who displayed little military spirit. blake, who offered to resign, complained of the conduct of many of them, and some were punished. the council of state saw the necessity for making a strong effort against tromp, who ranged the channel unopposed. penn was recalled from the north, richard deane and george monk were united with blake as "admirals and generals at sea," and a competent force was collected by the middle of february. the legend (for it is nothing more) that tromp hoisted a broom at his mainmast-head to announce his intention to sweep the english off the sea, refers to this period. on the 18th of february 1653 the dutch admiral, who had now collected the homeward-bound convoys, was off plymouth on his way back to holland, and was attacked by the english fleet. the encounter, which lasted from the 18th to the 20th of february and ranged from plymouth to calais, is commonly named the "three days' battle" and was described by clarendon as "stupendous." the dutch admiral brought his charge of merchant ships up channel between him and the french shore. his war-ships were arranged in what was called a half-moon, and was in fact an obtuse angle with his flagship, the "brederode," at the apex. during the 18th and 19th, the attacks of the english though fierce were partial, and met with no great success. tromp had to complain of the conduct of several of his captains. on the 20th his line was broken and some 60 of his merchant ships were captured. he anchored in some confusion in calais roads. yet by taking advantage of the dark, and the turn of the tide, he succeeded in carrying the great majority of his merchant ships home. the english fleet had suffered severely, blake himself was seriously wounded, and his colleague deane was also hurt. blake's wound disabled him greatly through the remainder of the war. the three days' battle was followed by a pause in the war. on the english side much damage had to be repaired. the administration of the navy, called upon as it was to deal with a war of unprecedented magnitude, was overtaxed by the obligation to refit ships, raise crews, and provide for the numerous sick or wounded. the close approach of the great political crisis in which cromwell expelled the long parliament and established the protectorate (17th of april 1653), may have had some influence. the fleet adhered to the new government on the 22nd of april. on the dutch side much damage had to be repaired, and their complicated administration, by five independent admiralty boards, rendered rapid work impossible. they had also begun to realize that the quality of their ships was inferior. reflection had further shown them that to hamper their fleets by imposing the direct protection of a great flock of merchant ships on them was not even an effectual way to protect commerce. when, therefore, tromp was next sent to sea, it was with an unhampered fleet of war-ships, and for the purpose of bringing the english fleet to battle. in spite of their heavy losses and their awkward administration, the dutch were at sea before the end of may, and were close to the mouth of the thames. the english fleet was not all ready. part was in the river fitting out under blake, who had not fully recovered from his wound. the bulk of it was, however, ready for service, and blake's colleagues, monk and deane, attacked tromp on the 2nd of june. changes of wind made the battle somewhat confused. at first the english were to windward and they bore down with rear-admiral john lawson in command of the van. tromp, conscious that his ships were weaker in build, at first drew away, firing at the spars of the english ships in order to cripple them. a shift of the wind having given him the weather-gage, he concentrated a vigorous attack on lawson. but the wind changed again and transferred the weather-gage to the english. monk and deane brought on a general action, in which the dutch were outmatched, and forced to retreat to their own coast. deane was slain by a cannon-shot by the side of his colleague monk, who threw his cloak over the mangled body. blake, informed by the sound of the cannon, which was audible on the thames, that an action was in progress, hurried to sea and joined monk in the pursuit of the dutch on the 3rd of june. tromp was driven into port and told the states-general that they must build better ships if they wished to beat the english at sea. blake was forced by his still unhealed wound to go ashore, and the sole command was left to monk, who remained cruising on the coast of holland. the states-general now sought for peace, but cromwell's demands were excessive, and could not be accepted without a surrender of the independence of holland. a last effort was therefore made to regain the command of the sea. a great fleet was fitted out, partly at flushing, partly in the texel. between the 26th and the 30th of july tromp, by a series of skilful manoeuvres, united the divided dutch squadrons in the face of monk's fleet, and on the 30th he stood out to sea with the wind in his favour, and gave battle. more than a hundred vessels were engaged on either side. the dutch admiral manoeuvred to keep, and monk to gain, the weather-gage. the fleets passed on opposite tacks, and the dutch tried to destroy their enemy with fire-ships without success. at last the weatherly qualities of the ships enabled monk to break through the dutch line, cutting some of their ships off from the others. the vessels thus cut off fled to the maas, and tromp with the others retired to the texel. he was shot dead by a musket bullet in the retreat. the loss of life had been heavy on both sides. six captains of monk's fleet were slain. the dutch now sought peace, and cromwell offered better terms. during the fighting in the north sea the mediterranean trade of england had suffered severely. a squadron of trading ships and a few war vessels were blocked in italian ports till some of them were taken and others forced to flee in march 1653 off leghorn. the battle of the 31st of july was the last serious operation of the war, though peace was not formally made till some months later. _second dutch war (1663-67)._--although the formal declaration of war was not made by the government of king charles ii. till march 1665, the operations of the second dutch war began in october 1663. the king and his brother the duke of york (james ii.), who were largely interested in the slave-trading guinea company, were eager to remove the dutch ports from the slave coast. they knew that war with the republic, which had recovered very rapidly from the disasters of the war of 1652-53, would be popular with the trading classes in england. they relied also on the known reluctance of the dutch government to go to war. in october 1663, therefore, a squadron was sent out under command of sir robert holmes to attack the dutch in gambia and america. their posts on the african coast were captured and new amsterdam (now new york) taken. the states-general under the skilful management of the grand pensionary, john de witt, retaliated by sending de ruyter from the mediterranean, where he was cruising against the barbary pirates, to follow holmes. de ruyter re-established the dutch posts in gambia, and, though he failed to retake new amsterdam, did much injury to english trade before he returned to holland. it may be pointed out that all colonial settlements belonged at that time exclusively to england, and the war was made entirely by her, and in her interest, scotland and ireland having no share. numbers of scotch sailors and of english deserters served in the dutch fleet in this war--the bad administration of the navy and the constant ill-treatment of the crews having caused bitter discontent. other attacks were made on dutch trade during 1664, but the great operations of war did not begin till may 1665. in that month the duke of york was on the east coast of england with a fleet of 80 to 90 sail, composed, according to the custom of the time, of vessels of all sizes. a dutch fleet of corresponding strength was sent to sea, under command of baron opdam van wassenaer. in this war we do not find that the movements of fleets were subordinated to the work of providing convoy. they were sent to sea for the much more intelligent purpose of seeking out the enemy and driving him off. it was understood that the trade of the victor would be secure. the first battle took place from 30 to 40 m. s.e. of lowestoft, on the 3rd of june 1665. by the bad conduct of some of the captains in the centre of the dutch line, the english, who fought with much spirit, were able to win a considerable victory. opdam's flagship was blown up and he perished. but the pursuit of the english fleet was feeble, and the retreat of the dutch was ably covered by cornelius van tromp, son of martin tromp. much scandal was caused by the mysterious circumstances in which an order to shorten sail was given in the english flagship, and doubts were expressed of the courage of the duke of york. he withdrew, or was withdrawn, from the active command at sea, and was replaced by the earl of sandwich. on the dutch side vigorous measures were taken to enforce good discipline. four of the captains who had misbehaved on the 3rd of june were shot for cowardice, and others were dismissed. de ruyter was named commander-in-chief, and john de witt, or later his brother cornelius, accompanied the admiral as delegate of the states-general to support his authority. the earl of sandwich did nothing becoming a capable commander. under his command the fleet made no attempt to blockade the dutch coast, but was turned from its proper work to engage in a prize-hunting plot with the king of denmark. the object was to plunder a dutch convoy which had taken refuge at bergen in norway, then united to denmark. the mutual interest of the associates led to the failure of the plot. sir thomas teddeman, who was sent by sandwich to attack the dutch at bergen, was suspected by the danish governor of intending to play false, was fired on by the batteries, and was beaten off. de ruyter covered the return of the trade to holland. sandwich, who had taken some prizes, unlawfully seized part of their cargoes for the benefit of himself and the other flag officers. a loud outcry was raised in the fleet and the country. sandwich was displaced, and his command was transferred to monk, with whom was associated the king's cousin, prince rupert. the war had so far been unsuccessful for england. the victory of the 3rd of june was barren. great injury was inflicted on english trade by dutch cruisers, while the wasteful administration of his officers reduced the king's treasury to much embarrassment. winter suspended the movements of the fleets. the year 1666 (called the _annus mirabilis_, for it included the plague and the fire of london) was marked by fierce fighting and changes of fortune. the french, who had signed a treaty with holland in 1662, were reluctantly induced to intervene in the war as the enemies of england. by may a dutch fleet of some eighty sail was at sea, preparing to watch the english, and unite with the french. monk and rupert were fitting out a fleet of nearly the same strength in the thames. under the influence of their fear of a french naval force king charles's ministers committed a great blunder. they detached prince rupert into the channel with 20 ships, leaving monk with only 57 to face the dutch. the english commander put to sea, and found the enemy anchored on the coast of flanders, in three divisions. he boldly attacked the van, hoping to cripple it before it could be helped by the centre and rear. this daring and well-judged move brought on the four days' battle of the 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th of june (o.s.). on the 1st the dutch van, under cornelius van tromp, bore the brunt of the english attack. the fighting was very fierce. one english admiral, sir william berkeley, was slain, and another, sir john harman, was in great danger. monk drew off at night without doing all the harm he had wished to the dutch. during the 2nd of june the fleets engaged again, and on this day the self-will of van tromp, who commanded the rear in the battle, and the misconduct of some of the ships in the van, prevented de ruyter from making full use of his numbers. yet monk was clearly overtaxed, and on the 3rd he prepared to retreat to the thames. during this movement the "prince" (100) carrying the flag of admiral sir robert ayscue, ran on the galloper sand, and was lost. in the evening prince rupert returned, and by hugging the coast of kent to the south of the fleets, was able to rejoin his colleague. monk and rupert renewed the battle on the 4th. it was fought with extreme fury, and terminated in the retreat of the english to the thames with a loss of 20 ships and 6000 men. the dutch remained masters of the approach to the thames till the 21st of july. they menaced the coast of essex, and could easily have covered an invasion of england by a french army if louis xiv. had been disposed to send one. danger stimulated the english government to active exertions, and by the 21st of july monk and rupert were enabled by a happy combination of wind and tide to set to sea through the passage called the swin. a storm which scattered both fleets delayed their meeting till the 25th of july. on that and the two succeeding days the dutch were again defeated and driven into port. the english fleet then burnt the dutch east india company's dockyard at terschelting, inflicting great loss. but the fruits of the victory were less than they would have been if it had been properly followed up. the british fleet withdrew to its own coast and within a month de ruyter was at sea again, hoping to effect a junction with a french squadron. the french failed to keep tryst, and de ruyter was watched by rupert, who was now in sole command, monk having been recalled to london to take command amid the confusion caused by the fire and the plague. nor did the failure of king charles's government to press the war with vigour end here. embarrassed by want of money, on bad terms with his parliament, and secretly intent on schemes incompatible with a policy which could earn the approval of his subjects, the king preferred to spend what money he could command on raising troops, and neglected his fleet. peace negotiations were begun with the dutch, and the line-of-battle ships were put out of commission. a light squadron was, however, kept at sea to injure the dutch trade, and as no armistice was arranged the republic was free to continue warlike operations. the dutch, being well aware of the disarmed condition of the english coast, sent out a powerful fleet again under the command of de ruyter in june. it entered the thames, forced the entrance of the medway, and burnt both the dockyard at chatham and a number of the finest ships in the navy which were lying in the river. a terrible panic prevailed in london, where an attack was expected. the dutch were content with the injury they had done at chatham, and dropped down the river. de ruyter remained cruising in the channel till the peace of breda was signed in july. during the last months of the war sir john harman had fought a successful campaign in the west indies against the french on whom he inflicted a severe defeat at martinique ~~ on the 24th of june. by the terms of the peace england retained possession of new york, but the war, though it contained some passages glorious to her arms, was very disastrous to her commerce. _third dutch war (1672-74)._--this war differed very materially in its inception and conduct from the first and second. they had been popular in england, and even the second gave englishmen not a little to be proud of. the third was undertaken by the king in pursuit of a policy arranged between him and his cousin louis xiv. their avowed object was a partition of holland, but there was a secret understanding that king charles ii. was to establish roman catholicism, and to make himself despotic in england, with the help of the french king. this hidden purpose was suspected, and the war became intensely unpopular with the english parliament and nation. parliament would grant the king no supplies, and he could find the means of fitting out a fleet only by defrauding his creditors. the english fleets were, therefore, comparatively small, were ill-provided and had to co-operate with french squadrons which in the then raw state of king louis' young navy, proved inefficient allies. in this as in former wars, attacks on dutch commerce preceded a formal declaration of hostilities. on the 13th of march 1672 sir robert holmes fell upon a dutch convoy under the command of van ness in the channel. in the penury of the dockyards holmes could not be provided with the force he was promised, and the enterprise was but partially successful. it was characteristic of the morality of his time and the spirit of the english navy as it had been shaped by the corrupt government of charles