DOMBROWSKI

dombrowski, jan henryk (1755-1818), polish general, was born at pierszowice in the palatinate of cracow, on the 29th of august 1755. brought up in saxony, he served for some years in the saxon army; but when, in 1791, the polish diet recalled all poles serving abroad, he returned to his native land. under poniatowski, he took part in the campaign of 1792 against the russians. in 1794 he distinguished himself under kosciusko in the defence of warsaw. for two years thereafter he lived in retirement, declining the offers of high ranks in their armies made to him by russia and prussia. he then went to paris, and in january 1797 was authorized by the government of the cisalpine republic to organize a polish legion. this task he executed at milan. in command of his legion he played an important part in the war in italy, entered rome in may 1798, and distinguished himself greatly at the trebbia (june 19, 1799), and in other battles and combats of 1799-1801. after the peace of amiens he passed, as general of division, into the service of the italian republic. summoned by napoleon in 1806 to promote a rising in poland, he organized several divisions of poles, and distinguished himself at danzig and at friedland. in 1809 he served in the polish campaign and in 1812 he commanded a polish division in the _grande armee_, being wounded at the passage of the beresina. he fought under marmont at the battle of leipzig (1813), and in the following year returned to poland. he was one of the generals entrusted by the tsar with the reorganization of the polish army, and was named in 1815 general of cavalry and senator palatine of the new kingdom of poland. he retired, however, in the following year, to his estates in posen. general dombrowski died at his seat of wina-gora in posen on the 26th of june 1818. he wrote several military historical works in the polish language. dome (lat _domus_, house; ital. _duomo_, cathedral), an architectural term, derived from a characteristic feature of italian cathedrals, correctly applied only to a spherical or spheroidal vault, the horizontal plan of which is always a circle. it may be supported on a circular wall, as in the pantheon at rome; or on a drum, as in the later byzantine churches and generally so in the renaissance styles; or be carried over a square or polygonal area, in which case the base of the dome is connected to the lines of the main wall by pendentives, squinches, corbels or a series of concentric arches, or two of these combined. its section may be semicircular, pointed, ovoid or segmental; in the latter case it is usually termed a cupola, although the pendentives which carry it continue, on the diagonal lines, the complete spherical dome, as in the entrance vestibule on the south side of the sanctuary at jerusalem, attributed to herod, or in those crowning the bays of the golden gateway by justinian. the dome may be constructed in horizontal courses, as in the "beehive" tombs at mycenae, with joints radiating to the centre, or a compromise between the two, in a series of small segments of circles, as in the temple of jupiter in diocletian's palace at spalato, or again with the lower portion in horizontal courses and the upper portion with arches, as in the pantheon at rome. the dome is probably one of the earliest forms of covering invented by man, but owing probably to its construction in ephemeral materials, such as the unburnt bricks in chaldaea, there are no examples existing. but in a bas-relief (see architecture, fig. 10), brought by layard from kuyunjik, are representations of semicircular and ovoid domes, which show that the feature was well known in assyria, and as they build domes of the same nature down to the present day and without centring of any kind, it suggests that they may have existed from the remotest ages. the most ancient examples in europe are those of the "beehive" tombs at mycenae and elsewhere in greece, ascribed generally to the 11th century b.c. in a sense, they are not true domes, because they are built in horizontal courses of stone, which act like the voussoirs of an arch in resisting the thrust of the earth at the back. this did not exist in the choragic monument of lysicrates or other circular buildings in greece, because their vertical sections were not portions of circles. for this reason, the conical vault of the baths in pompeii is not a dome. the circular laconicon in the baths of titus (a.d. 72) may have been domed, and the great hemicycles in the thermae must certainly have been roofed with semi-domes. the earliest roman domes are those of the great circular halls at baiae near naples, described as temples, but really forming part of the immense bathing establishments there, the favourite place of resort of the romans during the latter part of the republic. the largest on the east side of the lake of avernus, known as the temple of apollo, is a circular hall with an internal diameter of 100 ft. those of diana, mercury and venus at baiae, were 96, 66 and 60 ft. respectively. the vaults were all built in tufa with horizontal courses in brick and cement. half of the dome of the temple of mercury had fallen down, showing the section to have been nearly that of an equilateral arch. from the fact that there were pierced openings or windows in all these domes, they probably constituted the _frigidaria_ of the baths. the first example still existing in rome is that of the pantheon (a.d. 112), where a circular dome, 142 ft. in diameter, rests on a circular wall, its height being about equal to its diameter. the lower courses of this dome, built in the roman brick or tile, were, up to the top of the third coffer, all laid in horizontal courses; above that, the construction is not known for certain; externally a series of small arches is shown, but they rested on a shell already built. the so-called temple of minerva medica (now recognized as the nymphaeum of the baths of gallienus, a.d. 366) is the next dated example. the nymphaeum was decagonal on plan, so that small pendentives were required to carry the brick dome. the domed laconicon of the thermae of diocletian (a.d. 302) still exists as the vestibule of the church of santa maria degli angeli. of constantine's time there are two small domed examples in the tomb of s. costanza and the baptistery of the lateran, both in rome, and one in the tomb of galla placidia at ravenna (c. a.d. 450). from these we pass to the sassanian domes at serbistan and firuzabad, of the 4th and 5th centuries respectively. these were built in brick and rested on square pendentives. in section they were ovoid. in syria, the dome over the octagonal church at esra, built in stone and dated a.d. 515, is also ovoid, its height being equal to its diameter, i.e. 28 ft. this, as well as the sassanian domes, was built without centring. the next example is that of the church of sta sophia at constantinople, the finest example existing, both in its conception and execution. it was built by justinian (537-552) from the designs of anthemius of tralles and isidorus of miletus. the dome is 104 ft. in diameter, and is carried on pendentives over a square area. the construction is of brick and stone in alternate courses, and the lower part of the dome is pierced with forty windows, which give it an extraordinary lightness. the height from the pavement of the church to the soffit of the dome is 179 ft. no dome of similar dimensions was ever again attempted by the byzantine architects, and the principal difference in later examples was the raising of the dome on a circular drum pierced with windows. in order to lighten the dome erected over the church of san vitale, at ravenna, it was constructed with hollow cylindrical jars, fitted, the end of one into the mouth of the other; a similar contrivance was adopted in the tomb of the empress helena (the torre pignatiara), the vaults of the circus of maxentius on the via appia, and the outer aisles of san stefano, all at rome, thus dispensing with the buttresses of sta sophia. the domes of the earlier mosques in cairo were built on the model of sta sophia, with windows pierced round the base of the dome and external buttresses between them; these domes were all built in brick coated over with cement or stucco. at a later date, and when built in stone, the upper portion was raised in height and terminated with a point on which a finial was placed. these are the domes inside and outside cairo, which are carved with an infinity of geometrical patterns interwoven with conventional floral decoration. the upper portion of the dome is very thin, so that there is little weight and comparatively no thrust, and it is to these facts that we probably owe their preservation. in india, in the "great mosque" of jama masjid (a.d. 1560) and the gol gumbaz, or tomb of mahommed adil shah (a.d. 1630) at bijapur, the domes are carried on pendentives consisting of arches crossing one another and projecting inwards, and their weight counteracts any thrust there may be in the dome. it is possibly for a similar reason that in the jama masjid of shah jahan at delhi (1632-1638) and the taj mahal (a.d. 1630) the domes assume a bulbous form, the increased thickness of the dome below the haunches by its weight served as a counterpoise to any thrust the upper part of the dome might exert. the form is not much to be admired, and when exaggerated, as it is in the churches of russia, where it was introduced by the tatars, at times it became monstrous. from these we pass to the domes of perigord and la charente, the earliest of which date from the commencement of the 11th century. of the western dome of st etienne at perigueux (a.d. 14) only the pendentives remain, sufficient, however, with later examples, to show that these french domes were different from the byzantine both in construction and form. the pendentives are built on horizontal courses of stone, and the voussoirs of the pointed arches which carried them form part of the pendentives; a few feet above the top of the arches is a moulding and a ledge, above which the dome, ovoid in section, is built. the principal examples following st etienne are those of s. jean-de-cole, cahors, souillac, solignac, angouleme, fontevrault, and lastly st front at perigueux, built about 1150, in imitation of st mark's at venice. the domes of the latter church were introduced into the old basilica about 1063, and were based on the church of the apostles at constantinople, which was pulled down in the 15th century, so that we have only the clear description of procopius to go by. the domes over the north and south transepts and the choir of st mark's are smaller than those over the nave and crossing, because they had to be fitted in between more ancient structures. the construction of the domes of st mark's is not known, but at st front the general design only was copied, and they built them in the perigordian manner. the masons from perigord are also responsible for the domes of the crusaders' churches in palestine and for some of the early churches still remaining in cyprus. the domes of san cyriaco at ancona and sant' antonio at padua were based upon those of st mark's at venice. in central italy we have the dome (elliptical in plan) of the cathedral of pisa, and it was a favourite feature over the crossing of the churches throughout italy, being generally carried on squinch pendentives. the domes of the baptisteries of florence, parma, trieste and piacenza, are only internal, being enclosed with vertical walls and a sloping roof. in sicily, on account of the strong saracenic influence, the squinches are simple versions of the stalactite pendentives described under architecture: _mahommedan_ (q.v.), the earliest example being found in the church of san giovanni-dei-leprosi (a.d. 1072), all the domes being ovoid in section. except in perigord and la charente, domes are not found in the churches in france, but in spain they were introduced over the crossing at burgos, tarragona and salamanca cathedrals, and were made architectural features externally. this is rarely found in germany, for although in the cathedrals of worms, spires and mainz, and in the churches of st martin and sankt maria im capitol at cologne, the crossings are covered by domes, always carried on squinch pendentives, externally they built lanterns round them. in the renaissance styles, the dome was at once accepted as the principal characteristic feature, and its erection over the crossing of santa maria del fiore at florence was the first important work entrusted to brunelleschi. the dome was begun in 1422, and finished in 1431, with the exception of the lantern, begun the year of his death in 1444, and completed in 1471. the dome, which is octagonal on plan, is 139 ft. in diameter, and is built with an inner and outer casing, concentric one with the other, tied together by ribs between them: the lower portion is stone, the upper part is brick. the double shell was also employed by michelangelo in the dome of st peter's at rome, the outer shell being raised higher than the lower and connected by ribs one with the other. the diameter is 140 ft. and the construction in brick, similar to that at florence, but the ribs are in stone from tivoli. in both these cases the weight of the lantern was a very important consideration, and is responsible for the repeated repairs required and the introduction of additional ties. in this respect sir christopher wren solved the difficulty at st paul's cathedral, london, in another way: he provided three shells, the lower one with an eye in the centre forming the inner dome as seen from the interior; the middle one of conical form, and the outer one framed in timber and covered with lead. the conical shell carries the lantern, the weight of which is carried direct to the base, bound with iron ties, with such additional strength as may be given by the portico round. in all these cases these domes are built on lofty drums, so that externally they present quite a different appearance to those of the pantheon at rome, or sta sophia in constantinople. of other examples, the domes of the invalides in paris, by mansard (1706), and of the pantheon by soufflot (1735), have each three shells, the former having a graceful outline. in spain the dome of the cathedral at granada (1530) and the escurial (1563); in italy those of sta maria della salute at venice, the small example of bramante at todi (1480) and of the carignano at genoa, are worth recording, as also the dome of the suleimanie mosque at constantinople (1550). see plates illustrating architecture; and indian architecture. (r. p. s.) domenichino (or domenico), zampieri (1581-1641), italian painter, born at bologna, on the 21st of october 1581, was the son of a shoemaker. the diminutive form of christian name by which he is constantly known indicates his short stature. he was placed, when young, under the tuition of denis calvart; but having been treated with great severity by that master, he left him, and became a pupil in the academy of the caracci, under agostino. towards the beginning of the 17th century he went to rome, at the invitation of his fellow-pupil and intimate albani, and prosecuted his studies under annibale caracci. the faculty of domenichino was slow in its development. he was at first timid and distrustful of his powers; while his studious, unready and reserved manners were misunderstood by his companions for dulness, and he obtained the nickname of the "ox" (bue). but annibale caracci, who observed his faculties with more attention, predicted that the apparent slowness of domenichino's genius would in time produce what would be an honour to the art of painting. when his early productions had brought him into notice, he studied with extreme application, and made such advance as to raise his works into a comparison with those of the most admired masters of the time. from his acting as a continual censor of his own works, he became distinguished amongst his fellow-pupils as an accurate and expressive designer; his colours were the truest to nature; mengs, indeed, found nothing to desire in his works, except a somewhat larger proportion of elegance. that he might devote his whole powers to the art, domenichino shunned all society; or, if he occasionally sought it in the public theatres and walks, this was in order better to observe the play of the passions in the features of the people--those of joy, anger, grief, terror and every affection of the mind--and to commit them vividly to his tablets; thus, says bellori, it was that he succeeded in delineating the soul, in colouring life, and calling forth heartfelt emotions, at which all his works aim. in personal character he is credited with temperance and modesty; but, besides his want of sociability, he became somewhat suspicious, and jealous of his master. in rome, domenichino obtained employment from cardinals borghese, farnese and aldobrandini, for all of whom he painted works in fresco. the distinguished reputation which he had acquired excited the envy of some of his contemporaries. lanfranco in particular, one of his most inveterate enemies, asserted that his celebrated "communion of st jerome" (painted for the church of la carita towards 1614, for a pittance of about ten guineas, now in the vatican gallery, and ordinarily, but most irrationally, spoken of as the second or third best oil picture in the world) was an imitation from agostino caracci; and he procured an engraving of this master's picture of the same subject (now in the gallery of bologna), copies of which were circulated for the purpose of proving that domenichino was a plagiarist. there is in truth a very marked resemblance between the two compositions. the pictures which zampieri painted immediately afterwards, representing subjects from the life of st cecilia, only increased the alarm of his competitors, and redoubled their injustice and malignity. disgusted with these cabals, he left rome for bologna, where he remained until he was recalled by pope gregory xv., who appointed him principal painter and architect to the pontifical palace. in this architectural post he seems to have done little or nothing, although he was not inexpert in the art. he designed in great part the villa di belvedere at frascati, and the whole of the villa ludovisi, and some other edifices. from 1630 onwards domenichino was engaged in naples, chiefly on a series of frescoes (never wholly completed) of the life of st januarius in the cappella del tesoro. he settled in that city with his family, and opened a school. there the persecution against him became far more shameful than in any previous instance. the notorious so-called "cabal of naples"--the painters corenzio, ribera and caracciolo--leagued together as they were to exclude all alien competition, plagued and decried the bolognese artist in all possible ways; for instance, on returning in the morning to his fresco work, he would find not infrequently that someone had rubbed out the performance of the previous day. perpetual worry is believed to have brought the life of domenichino to a close; contemporary suspicion did not scruple to speak broadly of poison, but this has remained unconfirmed. he died in naples, after two days' illness, on the 15th of april 1641. domenichino, in correctness of design, expression of the passions, and simplicity and variety in the airs of his heads, has been considered little inferior to raphael; but in fact there is the greatest gulf fixed between the two. critics of the 18th century adulated the bolognese beyond all reason or toleration; he is now regarded as commonplace in mind and invention, lacking any innate ideality, though undoubtedly a forcible, resolute and learned executant. "we must," says lanzi, "despair to find paintings exhibiting richer or more varied draperies, details of costume more beautifully adapted, or more majestic mantles. the figures are finely disposed both in place and action, conducing to the general effect; whilst a light pervades the whole which seems to rejoice the spirit, growing brighter and brighter in the aspect of the best countenances, whence they first attract the eye and heart of the beholder. the persons delineated could not tell their tale to the ear more plainly than they speak it to the eye. the 'scourging of st andrew,' which he executed in competition with guido reni at rome (a fresco in the church of san gregorio), is a powerful illustration of this truthful expression. of the two works of these masters, annibale caracci preferred that of domenichino. it is said that in painting one of the executioners the artist actually wrought himself into a passion, using threatening words and actions, and that annibale caracci, surprising him at that moment, embraced him, exclaiming with joy, 'to-day, my dear domenichino, thou art teaching me.' so novel, and at the same time so natural, it appeared to him that the artist, like the orator, should feel within himself all that he is representing to others." domenichino is esteemed the most distinguished disciple of the caracci, or second only to guido reni. algarotti preferred him to the greatest masters; and nicolas poussin considered the painter of the "communion of st jerome" to be the first after raphael. his pictures of "adam and eve," and the "martyrdom of st agnes," in the gallery of bologna, are amongst his leading works. others of superior interest are his first known picture, a fresco of the "death of adonis," in the loggia of the giardino farnese, rome; the "martyrdom of st sebastian," in santa maria degli angeli; the "four evangelists," in sant' andrea della valle; "diana and her nymphs," in the borghese gallery; the "assumption of the virgin," in santa maria di trastevere; and frescoes in the neighbouring abbey of grotta ferrata, lives of ss. nilus and bartholomew. his portraits are also highly reputed. it is admitted that in his compositions he often borrowed figures and arrangements from previous painters. domenichino was potent in fresco. he excelled also in landscape painting. in that style (in which he was one of the earliest practitioners) the natural elegance of his scenery, his trees, his well-broken grounds, the character and expression of his figures, gained him as much public admiration as any of his other performances. see bolognini, _life of domenichino_ (1839); c. landon, _works of domenichino, with a memoir_ (1823). (w. m. r.)