DNIEPER

dnieper, one of the most important rivers of europe (the _borysthenes_ of the greeks, _danapris_ of the romans, _uzi_ or _uzu_ of the turks, eksi of the tatars, _elice_ of visconti's map (1381), _lerene_ of contarini (1437), _luosen_ of baptista of genoa (1514), and _lussem_ in the same century). it belongs entirely to russia, and rises in the government of smolensk, in a swampy district (alt. 930 ft.) at the foot of the valdai hills, not far from the sources of the volga and the dvina, in 55° 52' n. and 33° 41' e. its length is about 1410 m. and it drains an area of 202,140 sq. m. in the first part of its course, which may be said to end at dorogobuzh, it flows through an undulating country of carboniferous formation; in the second it passes west to orsha, south through the fertile plain of chernigov and kiev, and then south-east across the rocky steppe of the ukraine to ekaterinoslav. about 45 m. s. of this town it has to force its way across the same granitic offshoot of the carpathian mountains which interrupts the course of the dniester and the bug, and for a distance of about 25 m. rapid succeeds rapid. the fall of the river in that distance is 155 ft. the dnieper, having got clear of the rocks, continues south-west through the grassy plains of kherson and taurida, and enters the black sea, or rather a _liman_ or bay of the black sea, by a considerable estuary in 46° 30' n. and 32° 20' e. on this ramifying _liman_, into which the bug also pours its waters, stand nikolaiev and the fortified town of ochakov. navigation extends as far up as dorogobuzh, where the depth is about 12 ft., and rafts are floated down from the higher reaches. the banks are generally high, more particularly the left bank. about the town of smolensk the breadth is 455 ft., at the confluence of the pripet 1400, and in some parts of the ekaterinoslav district more than 11⁄4 m. in the course above the rapids the channel varies very greatly in nature and depth, and it is not infrequently interrupted by shallows. the rapids, or _porogs_, form a serious obstacle to navigation; it is only for a few weeks when the river is in flood that they are passable, and even then the venture is not without risk and can only be undertaken with the assistance of special pilots. it is from these falls that the cossacks of the ukraine came to be known as zaporogian cossacks. as early as 1732 an attempt was made to improve the channel. a canal, which ultimately proved too small for use, was constructed at nenasitets in 1780 at private expense; blastings were carried out in 1798 and 1799 at various parts; in 1805 a canal was formed at kaindatski, and the channel straightened at sursk; by 1807 a new canal was completed at nenasitets; in 1833 a passage was cleared through the staro-kaindatski porog; and in the period 1843 to 1853 numerous ameliorations were effected. the result has been not only to diminish greatly the dangers of the natural channel, but also to furnish a series of artificial canals by which vessels can make their way when the river is low. of the tributaries of the dnieper the following are navigable,--the berezina and the pripet from the right, and the sozh and the desna from the left. by means of the dnieper-bug (king's) canal, and the berezina and oginski canals, this river has a sort of water connexion with the baltic sea. in the estuary the fisheries give employment to large numbers of people. at kiev the river is free from ice on an average of 234 days in the year, at ekaterinoslav 270 and at kherson 277. (p. a. k.; j. t. be.) dniester (_tyras_ and _danaster_ or _danastris_ of classical authors, _nistrul_ of the rumanians, and _turla_ of the turks), a river of south-eastern europe belonging to the basin of the black sea. it rises on the northern slope of the carpathian mountains in austrian galicia, and belongs for the first 350 m. of its course to austrian, for the remaining 515 m. to russian, territory. it drains an area of 29,670 sq. m., of which 16,500 sq. m. belong to russia. it is excessively meandering, and the current in most parts even during low water is decidedly rapid as compared with russian rivers generally, the mean rate being calculated at 1-7/11 m. per hour. the average width of the channel is from 500 to 750 ft., but in some places it attains as much as 1400 ft.; the depth is various and changeable. the principal interruption in the navigable portion of the river, besides a sprinkling of rocks in the bed and the somewhat extensive shallows, is occasioned by a granitic spur from the carpathians, which gives rise to the yampol rapids. for ordinary river craft the passage of these rapids is rendered possible, but not free from danger, by a natural channel on the left side, and by a larger and deeper artificial channel on the right; for steamboats they form an insuperable barrier. the river falls into the sea by several arms, passing through a shallow _liman_ or lagoon, a few miles s.w. of odessa. there are two periodical floods,--the earlier and larger caused by the breaking up of the ice, and occurring in the latter part of february or in march; and the later due to the melting of the snows in the carpathians, and taking place about june. the spring flood raises the level of the water 20 ft., and towards the mouth of the river submerges the gardens and vineyards of the adjacent country. in some years the general state of the water is so low that navigation is possible only for three or four weeks, while in other years it is so high that navigation continues without interruption; but in recent years considerable improvements have been effected at government expense. in consequence the traffic has increased, the dniester tapping regions of great productiveness, especially in cereals and timber, namely, galicia, podolia and bessarabia. steamboat traffic was introduced in the lower reaches in 1840. the fisheries of the lower course and of the estuary are of considerable importance; and these, together with those of the lakes which are formed by the inundations, furnish a valuable addition to the diet of the people in the shape of carp, pike, tench, salmon, sturgeon and eels. its tributaries are numerous, but not of individual importance, except perhaps the sereth in galicia. (p. a. k.; j. t. be.)