DIOPTASE

dioptase, a rare mineral species consisting of acid copper orthosilicate, h2cusio4, crystallizing in the parallel-faced hemihedral class of the rhombohedral system. the degree of symmetry is the same as in the mineral phenacite, there being only an axis of triad symmetry and a centre of symmetry. the crystals have the form of a hexagonal prism m terminated by a rhombohedron r, the alternate edges between these being sometimes replaced by the faces of a rhombohedron s. the faces are striated parallel to the edges between r, s and m. there are perfect cleavages parallel to the faces of a rhombohedron which truncate the polar edges of r: from the cleavage cracks internal reflections are often to be seen in the crystal, and it was on account of this that the mineral was named dioptase, by r. j. hauy in 1797, from [greek: diopteuein], "to see into." the crystals vary from transparent to translucent with a vitreous lustre, and are bright emerald-green in colour; they thus have a certain resemblance to emerald, hence the early name emerald-copper (german, _kupfer-smaragd_). hardness 5; sp. gr. 3.3. the mineral is decomposed by hydrochloric acid with separation of gelatinous silica. at a red heat it blackens and gives off water. the fine crystals from mount altyn-tube on the western slopes of the altai mountains in the kirghiz steppes, asiatic russia, line cavities in a compact limestone; they were first sent to europe in 1785 by achir mahmed, a bucharian merchant, after whom the mineral has been named archirite. more recently, in 1890, good crystals of similar habit, but rather darker in colour, have been found with quartz and malachite near komba in the french congo. as drusy crystalline crusts it has been found at copiapo in chile and in arizona. [illustration] dioptase has occasionally been used as a gem-stone, especially in russia and persia; it has a fine colour, but a low degree of hardness and the transparency is imperfect. (l. j. s.) diorite (from the gr. [greek: diorizein] to distinguish, from [greek: dia] through, [greek: oros], a boundary), in petrology, the name given by hauy to a family of rocks of granitic texture, composed of plagioclase felspar and hornblende. as they are richer in the dark coloured ferromagnesian minerals they are usually grey or dark grey, and have a higher specific gravity than granite. they also rarely show visible quartz. but there are diorites of many kinds, as the name applies rather to a family of rocks than to a single species. some contain biotite, others augite or hypersthene; many have a small amount of quartz. orthoclase is rarely entirely absent, and when it is fairly common the rock becomes a tonalite; in this way a transition is furnished between diorites and granites. it is rare to find the pure types of "hornblende-diorite," "augite-diorite," &c., but in most cases the rocks contain two or more ferromagnesian silicates, and such combinations as "hornblende-biotite-diorite" are commonest in nature. the felspar of the diorites ranges in composition from oligoclase to labradorite, and is often remarkably zonal, the external layers being more alkaline than the internal. small fluid enclosures and black grains, probably iron oxides, often occur in it in great numbers. weathering produces epidote, calcite, sericite and kaolin. the biotite is always brown or yellow; the hornblende usually green, but sometimes brown or yellowish brown in those diorites which have affinities to lamprophyres. the augite is nearly always green but sometimes has a reddish tinge; bronzite and hypersthene have their usual green and brown shades. apatite, iron oxides and zircon are almost invariably present; sphene, garnet and orthite are occasionally observed; calcite, chlorite, muscovite, kaolin, epidote and bastite are secondary. the structure is not essentially different from that of granite. the ferromagnesian minerals crystallize comparatively early and have some idiomorphism; the felspar usually follows and only in part shows good crystalline outlines. orthoclase and quartz, if present, are last to separate out, and fill the spaces between the other minerals; often they interpenetrate to form micropegmatite. in many diorites the plagioclase felspar has crystallized before the hornblende, which consequently has less perfect outlines and forms irregular plates which enclose sharply formed individuals of felspar. this produces the ophitic structure (very common also in the dolerites). more rarely biotite and augite exhibit the same relations to the plagioclase. orbicular structure also occasionally appears in these rocks; in fact the orbicular diorite of corsica (also called "napoleonite" or "corsite") was for a long time the best-known example of this structure. the rock seems composed of spheroids, about an inch in diameter, surrounded by a smaller amount of dark-coloured dioritic matrix. the spheroids have a radiate structure and often show concentric dark and pale shells. these consist of hornblende (dark green) and basic plagioclase felspar, labradorite and bytownite (grey or nearly white). occasionally diorites have a parallel banded or foliated structure, but these must not be confounded with the epidiorites, which are metamorphic rocks and also have a conspicuous foliation. diorites must also be distinguished from hornblendic gabbros, which contain more basic felspars, rarely quartz and occasionally olivine; but the boundary lines between diorites and gabbros are admittedly somewhat vague, e.g. some authors would call rocks gabbro which others would regard as augite-diorite. the hornblendites differ from the diorites in containing little felspar, and consist principally of hornblende. among varietal designations given to rocks of the diorite family are "banatite" for an augite-diorite with or without quartz (from the schemnitz district), "granodiorite" for a quartz-hornblende-diorite (essentially the same as tonalite) from california, &c., "adamellite" for the quartz-mica-diorite or tonalite of monte adamello (alps), "ornite" for a hornblende-diorite rich in felspar, from sweden. (j. s. f.) dip (old eng. _dyppan_, connected with the common teutonic root seen in "deep"), the angle which the magnetic needle makes with the horizon. a freely suspended magnetic needle will not maintain a horizontal position except at the magnetic equator. over the n. magnetic pole the north-seeking end of the needle points directly downwards and dips at an intermediate angle at intermediate distances between the magnetic poles and equator. there are secular progressive variations of dip as well as of declination and the maxima are independent of each other. in 1576 the dip at london was 71° 50', in 1720 (max.) 74° 42', in 1900 67° 9'. (for dip circle see inclinometer.) diphenyl (phenyl benzene), c6h5·c6h5, a hydrocarbon found in that fraction of the coal-tar distillate boiling between 240-300° c., from which it may be obtained by warming with sulphuric acid, separating the acid layer and strongly cooling the undissolved oil. it may be artificially prepared by passing benzene vapour through a red-hot tube; by the action of sodium on brombenzene dissolved in ether; by the action of stannous chloride on phenyldiazonium chloride; or by the addition of solid phenyldiazonium sulphate to warm benzene (r. mohlau, _berichte, 1893, 26_, 1997) c6h5n2·hso4 + c6h6 = h2so4 + n2 + c6h5·c6h5. l. gattermann (_berichte, 1890, 23_, 1226) has also prepared it by the decomposition of a solution of phenyldiazonium sulphate with alcohol and copper powder. it crystallizes in plates (from alcohol) melting at 70-71° c. and boiling at 254° c. it is oxidized by chromic acid in glacial acetic acid solution to benzoic acid, dilute nitric acid and chromic acid mixture being without effect. it is not reduced by hydriodic acid and phosphorus, but sodium in the presence of amyl alcohol reduces it to tetrahydrodiphenyl c12h14. many substitution derivatives are known: the monosubstitution derivatives being capable of existing in three isomeric forms. of the disubstitution derivatives the most important are those derived from diparadiaminodiphenyl or benzidine (q.v.). _orthoaminodiphenyl_, nh2 __ |__ / \__/ \ , \__/ \__/ is prepared by the action of bromine and caustic soda on orthophenylbenzamide (r. hirsch, _berichte, 1892, 25_, 1974); when its vapour is passed over heated lime, carbazol (q.v.) is formed. _diorthodiaminodiphenyl_, nh2 nh2 __| |__ / \__/ \ , \__/ \__/ is obtained by the reduction of the corresponding nitro compound (obtained by the action of ethyl nitrite at 0° c. on metadinitrobenzidine hydrochloride). its tetrazo compound on reduction gives a hydrazine which, on warming with hydrochloric acid at 150° c., decomposes into ammonium chloride and _phenazone_, n = n __| |__ / \___/ \ \__/ \__/ (c12h8n2). one of the most important derivatives of diphenyl, from the theoretical point of view, is _diphenic acid_ or diorthodiphenyl carboxylic acid, which can be obtained from diparadiaminodiphenyldiorthocarboxylic acid, __ __ h2n / \__/ \ nh2 , \__/ \__/ | | hooc cooh or from phenanthrene (q.v.), the constitution of which it determines. see benzidine for diparadiaminodiphenyl.