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    "source_title": "Encyclopaedia Britannica (1911)",
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    "chunk_id": "1911:cyperaceae:ac2a4f0defbe",
    "title": "CYPERACEAE",
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    "verified_text": "cyperaceae, in botany, a natural order of the monocotyledonous group of seed-bearing plants. they are grass-like herbs, sometimes annual, but more often persist by means of an underground stem from which spring erect solitary or clustered, generally three-sided aerial stems, with leaves in three rows. the minute flowers are arranged in spikelets somewhat as in grasses, and these again in larger spike-like or panicled inflorescences. the flower has in rare cases a perianth of six scale-like leaves arranged in two whorls, and thus conforming to the common monocotyledonous type of flower. generally the perianth is represented by hairs, bristles or similar developments, often indefinite in number; in the two largest genera, _cyperus_, (fig. 1) and _carex_ (fig. 2), the flowers are naked. in a few cases two whorls of stamens are present, with three members in each, but generally only three are present; the pistil consists of three or two carpels, united to form an ovary bearing a corresponding number of styles and containing one ovule. the flowers, which are often unisexual, are wind-pollinated. the fruit is one-seeded, with a tough, leathery or hard wall. there are nearly 70 genera containing about 3000 species and widely distributed throughout the earth, chiefly as marsh-plants. in the arctic zone they form 10% of the flora; they will flourish in soils rich in humus which are too acid to support grasses. the large genus _cyperus_ contains about 400 species, chiefly in the warmer parts of the earth; _c. papyrus_ is the egyptian papyrus. _carex_, the largest genus of the order, the sedges, is widely distributed in the temperate, alpine and arctic regions of both hemispheres, and is represented by 60 species in britain. _carex arenaria_, the sea-bent, grows on sand-dunes and helps to bind the sand with its long cord-like underground stem which branches widely. _scirpus lacustris_ (fig. 3, 1) the true bulrush, occurs in lakes, ditches and marshes; it has a spongy, green, cylindrical stem, reaching nearly an inch in thickness and 1 to 8 ft. high, which is usually leafless with a terminal branched inflorescence. _eriophorum_ (fig. 3), cotton grass, is represented in britain by several species in boggy land; they are small tufted herbs with cottony heads due to the numerous hair-like bristles which take the place of the perianth and become much elongated in the fruiting stage. [illustration: fig. 1.--partial inflorescence of _cyperus longus_ (galingale), slightly reduced. 1, spikelet of same; 2, flower.] [illustration: fig. 2.--_carex riparia_, the largest british sedge, from 3 to 5 ft. high. 1, male flower of _carex_; 2, female flower of _carex_; 3, seed of _carex_, cut lengthwise.] [illustration: fig. 3.--inflorescence of cotton-grass (_eriophorum polystachion_), about 2/3 nat. size. 1, flower of true bulrush (_scirpus lacustris_).] cy-pres (a.-fr. for \"so near\"), in english law, a principle adopted by the court of chancery in dealing with trusts for charitable purposes. when the charitable purpose intended by a testator cannot be carried into effect, the court will apply the funds to some other purpose, as near the original as possible (whence the name). for instance, a testator having left a fund to be divided into four parts--one-fourth to be used for \"the redemption of british slaves in turkey and barbary,\" and the other three-fourths for various local charities--it was found that there were no british slaves in turkey or barbary, and as to that part of the gift therefore the testator's purpose failed. instead of allowing the portion of the fund devoted to this impossible purpose to lapse to the next of kin, the court devoted it to the purposes specified for the rest of the estate. this doctrine is only applied where \"a general intention of charity is manifest\" in the will, and not where one particular object only was present to the mind of the testator. thus, a testator having left money to be applied in building a church in a particular parish, and that having been found to be impossible, the fund will not be applied _cy-pres_, but will go to the next of kin. in the united states, charitable trusts have become more frequent as the wealth of the country has progressed, and are regarded with increasing favour by the courts. the _cy-pres_ doctrine has been either expressly or virtually applied to uphold them in several of the states, and in some there has been legislation in the same direction. in others the doctrine has been repudiated, e.g. in michigan, tennessee, indiana and virginia. for many years the new york courts held that this doctrine was not in force there, but in 1893 the legislature repealed the provisions of the revised statutes on which these decisions rested and restored the ancient law. statutes passed in pennsylvania have established the doctrine there, and dissolved any doubt as to its being in force in that state. cypress (_cupressus_), in botany, a genus of fifteen species belonging to the tribe cupressineae, natural order coniferae, represented by evergreen aromatic trees and shrubs indigenous to the south of europe, western asia, the himalayas, china, japan, north-western and north-eastern america, california and mexico. the leaves of the cypresses are scale-like, overlapping and generally in four rows; the female catkins are roundish, and fewer than the male; the cones consist of from six to ten peltate woody scales, which end in a curved point, and open when the seeds are ripe; the seeds are numerous and winged. all the species exude resin, but no turpentine. _c. sempervirens_, the common cypress, has been well known throughout the mediterranean region since classic times; it may have been introduced from western asia where it is found wild. it is a tapering, flame-shaped tree resembling the lombardy poplar; its branches are thickly covered with small, imbricated, shining-green leaves; the male catkins are about 3 lines in length; the cones are between 1 and 1(1/2) in. in diameter, sessile, and generally in pairs, and are made up of large angular scales, slightly convex exteriorly, and with a sharp point in the centre. in britain the tree grows to a height of 40 ft., in its native soil to 70 or 90 ft. it thrives best on a dry, deep, sandy loam, on airy sheltered sites at no great elevation above the sea. it was introduced into great britain before the middle of the 16th century. in the climate of the south of england its rate of growth when young is between 1 and 1(1/2) ft. a year. the seeds are sown in april, and come up in three or four weeks; the plants require protection from frost during their first winter. the timber of the cypress is hard, close-grained, of a fine reddish hue, and very durable. among the ancients it was in request for poles, rafters, joists, and for the construction of wine-presses, tables and musical instruments; and on that account was so valuable that a plantation of cypresses was considered a sufficient dowry for a daughter. owing to its durability the wood was employed for mummy cases, and images of the gods; a statue of jupiter carved out of cypress is stated by pliny to have existed 600 years without showing signs of decay. the cypress doors of the ancient st peter's at rome, when removed by eugenius iv., were about 1100 years old, but nevertheless in a state of perfect preservation. laws were engraved on cypress by the ancients, and objects of value were preserved in receptacles made of it; thus horace speaks of poems _levi servanda cupresso_. the cypress, which grows no more when once cut down, was regarded as a symbol of the dead, and perhaps for that reason was sacred to pluto; its branches were placed by the greeks and romans on the funeral pyres and in the houses of their departed friends. its supposed ill-boding nature is alluded to in shakespeare's _henry vi._, where suffolk desires for his enemies \"their sweetest shade, a grove of cypress trees.\" the cypress was the tree into which cyparissus, a beautiful youth beloved by apollo, was transformed, that he might grieve to all time (ovid, _met._ x. 3). in turkish cemeteries the cypress-- \"dark tree, still sad when others' grief is fled, the only constant mourner o'er the dead\"-- is the most striking feature, the rule being to plant one for each interment. the tree grows straight, or nearly so, and has a gloomy and forbidding, but wonderfully stately aspect. with advancing age its foliage becomes of a dark, almost black hue. william gilpin calls the cypress an architectural tree: \"no italian scene,\" says he, \"is perfect without its tall spiral form, appearing as if it were but a part of the picturesquely disposed edifices which rise from the middle ground against the distant landscape.\" the cypress of somma, in lombardy, is believed to have been in existence in the time of julius caesar; it is about 121 ft. in height, and 23 ft. in circumference. napoleon, in making the road over the simplon, deviated from the straight line in order to leave it standing. the cypress, as the olive, is found everywhere in the dry hollows and high eastern slopes of corfu, of the scenery of which it is characteristic. as an ornamental tree in britain the cypress is useful to break the outline formed by round-headed low shrubs and trees. the _berosh_, or _beroth_, of the hebrew scriptures, translated \"fir\" in the authorized version, in 1 kings v. 8 and vi. 15, 2 chron. ii. 8 and many other passages, is supposed to signify the cypress. the common or tall variety of _c. sempervirens_ is known as _c. fastigiata_; the other variety, _c. horizontalis_, which is little planted in england, is distinguished by its horizontally spreading branches, and its likeness to the cedar. the species _c. torulosa_ of north india, so called from its twisted bark, attains an altitude of 150 ft.; its branches are erect or ascending, and grow so as to form a perfect cone. in the kulu and ladakh country the tree is sacred to the deities of the elements. it has been introduced into england, but does not thrive where the winter is severe. the wood, which in indian temples is burnt as incense, is yellowish-red, close-grained, tough, hard, readily worked, durable, and equal in quality to that of the deodar. another species, _c. lusitanica_ or _glauca_, the \"cedar of goa,\" is a handsome tree, 50 ft. in height when full-grown, with spreading branches drooping at their extremities; it has been much planted in portugal, especially in the neighbourhood of cintra. its origin is doubtful. it was well established in portugal before the middle of the 17th century, and has since been cultivated generally in the south of europe, but is nowhere believed to be indigenous. the name \"cedar of goa\" is misleading, as no cypress is found wild anywhere near goa. it was cultivated in england in the 17th century, and the name _c. lusitanica_ was given by philip miller, the curator of the chelsea physick garden, in 1768, in reference to its supposed portuguese origin. experience has shown this cypress to be too tender for british climate generally, though good specimens are to be found in the milder climate of the south and west of england and in ireland. the species _g. lawsoniana_, the port orford cedar, a native of south oregon and north california, where it attains a height of 100 ft., was introduced into scotland in 1854; it is much grown for ornamental purposes in britain, a large number of varieties of garden origin being distinguished by differences in habit and by colour of foliage. other californian cypresses are _c. macrocarpa_, the monterey cypress, which is 60 ft. high when mature, with a habit suggesting that of cedar of lebanon, and _c. joveniana_ and _c. macnabiana_, smaller trees generally from 20 to 30 ft. in height. _c. funebris_ is a native of the north of china, where it is planted near pagodas. _c. nootkaensis_, the nootka sound cypress or alaska cedar, was introduced into britain in 1850. it is a hardy species, reaching a height of from 80 to 100 ft. several varieties are distinguished by habit and colour of foliage. _c. obtusa_, a native of japan, is a tall tree reaching 100 ft. in height, and widely planted by the japanese for its timber, which is one of the best for interior construction. it is also cultivated by them as a decorative plant, in many forms, including dwarf forms not exceeding a foot in height. the \"deciduous cypress,\" \"swamp cypress\" or \"bald cypress,\" _taxodium distichum_, is another member of the order coniferae (tribe taxodineae), a native of the southern united states and mexico. it is a lofty tree reaching a height of 170 ft. or more, with a massive trunk 10 to 15 ft. or more in diameter, growing in or near water or on low-lying land which is subject to periodical flooding. the lower part of the trunk bears huge buttresses, each of which ends in a long branching far-spreading root, from the branches of which spring the peculiar knees which rise above the level of the water. the knees are of a soft spongy texture and act as breathing organs, supplying the roots with air, which they would otherwise be unable to obtain when submerged. the stout horizontally spreading branches give a cedar-like appearance; the foliage is light and feathery; the leaves and the slender shoots which bear them fall in the autumn. the cones, about the size of a small walnut, bear spirally arranged imbricated scales which subtend the three-angled winged seeds. the wood is light, soft, straight-grained and easily worked; it is very durable in contact with the soil, and is used for railway-ties, posts, fencing and for construction. the deciduous cypress was one of the first american trees introduced into england; it is described by john parkinson in his _herbal_ of 1640. it thrives only near water or where the soil is permanently moist.",
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