CLAY-WITH-FLINTS

clay-with-flints, in geology, the name given by w. whitaker in 1861 to a peculiar deposit of stiff red, brown or yellow clay containing unworn whole flints as well as angular shattered fragments, also with a variable admixture of rounded flint, quartz, quartzite and other pebbles. it occurs "in sheets or patches of various sizes over a large area in the south of england, from hertfordshire on the north to sussex on the south, and from kent on the east to devon on the west. it almost always lies on the surface of the upper chalk, but in dorset it passes on to the middle and lower chalk, and in devon it is found on the chert-beds of the selbornian group" (a.j. jukes-browne, "the clay-with-flints, its origin and distribution," _q.j.g.s._, vol. lxii., 1906, p. 132). many geologists have supposed, and some still hold, that the clay-with-flints is the residue left by the slow solution and disintegration of the chalk by the processes of weathering; on the other hand, it has long been known that the deposit very frequently contains materials foreign to the chalk, derived either from the tertiary rocks or from overlying drift. in the paper quoted above, jukes-browne ably summarizes the evidence against the view that the deposit is mainly a chalk residue, and brings forward a good deal of evidence to show that many patches of the clay-with-flints lie upon the same plane and may be directly associated with reading beds. he concludes "that the material of the clay-with-flints has been chiefly and almost entirely derived from eocene clay, with addition of some flints from the chalk; that its presence is an indication of the previous existence of lower eocene beds on the same site and nearly at the same relative level, and, consequently, that comparatively little chalk has been removed from beneath it. finally, i think that the tracts of clay-with-flints have been much more extensive than they are now" (loc. cit. p. 159). it is noteworthy that the clay-with-flints is developed over an area which is just beyond the limits of the ice sheets of the glacial epoch, and the peculiar conditions of late pliocene and pleistocene times; involving heavy rains, snow and frost, may have had much to do with the mingling of the tertiary and chalky material. besides the occurrence in surface patches, clay-with-flints is very commonly to be observed descending in "pipes" often to a considerable depth into the chalk; here, if anywhere, the residual chalk portion of the deposit should be found, and it is surmised that a thin layer of very dark clay with darkly stained flints, which appears in contact with the sides and bottom of the pipe, may represent all there is of insoluble residue. a somewhat similar deposit, a "_conglomerat de silex_" or "_argue a silex_," occurs at the base of the eocene on the southern and western borders of the paris basin, in the neighbourhood of chartres, thimerais and sancerrois. (j. a. h.) clazomenae (mod. _kelisman_), an ancient town of ionia and a member of the ionian dodecapolis (confederation of twelve cities), on the gulf of smyrna, about 20 m. w. of that city. though not in existence before the arrival of the ionians in asia, its original founders were largely settlers from phlius and cleonae. it stood originally on the isthmus connecting the mainland with the peninsula on which erythrae stood; but the inhabitants, alarmed by the encroachments of the persians, removed to one of the small islands of the bay, and there established their city. this island was connected with the mainland by alexander the great by means of a pier, the remains of which are still visible. during the 5th century it was for some time subject to the athenians, but about the middle of the peloponnesian war (412 b.c.) it revolted. after a brief resistance, however, it again acknowledged the athenian supremacy, and repelled a lacedaemonian attack. under the romans clazomenae was included in the province of asia, and enjoyed an immunity from taxation. the site can still be made out, in the neighbourhood of vourla, but nearly every portion of its ruins has been removed. it was the birthplace of the philosopher anaxagoras. it is famous for its painted terra-cotta sarcophagi, which are the finest monuments of ionian painting in the 6th century b.c. (e. gr.) cleanthes (c. 301-232 or 252 b.c.), stoic philosopher, born at assos in the troad, was originally a boxer. with but four drachmae in his possession he came to athens, where he listened first to the lectures of crates the cynic, and then to those of zeno, the stoic, supporting himself meanwhile by working all night as water-carrier to a gardener (hence his nickname [greek: phrehantles]). his power of patient endurance, or perhaps his slowness, earned him the title of "the ass"; but such was the esteem awakened by his high moral qualities that, on the death of zeno in 263, he became the leader of the school. he continued, however, to support himself by the labour of his own hands. among his pupils were his successor, chrysippus, and antigonus, king of macedon, from whom he accepted 2000 minae. the manner of his death was characteristic. a dangerous ulcer had compelled him to fast for a time. subsequently he continued his abstinence, saying that, as he was already half-way on the road to death, he would not trouble to retrace his steps. cleanthes produced very little that was original, though he wrote some fifty works, of which fragments have come down to us. the principal is the large portion of the _hymn to zeus_ which has been preserved in stobaeus. he regarded the sun as the abode of god, the intelligent providence, or (in accordance with stoical materialism) the vivifying fire or aether of the universe. virtue, he taught, is life according to nature; but pleasure is not according to nature. he originated a new theory as to the individual existence of the human soul; he held that the degree of its vitality after death depends upon the degree of its vitality in this life. the principal fragments of cleanthes's works are contained in diogenes laertius and stobaeus; some may be found in cicero and seneca. see g.c. mohinke, _kleanthes der stoiker_ (greifswald, 1814); c. wachsmuth, _commentationes de zenone citiensi et cleanthe assio_ (gottingen, 1874-1875); a.c. pearson, _fragments of zeno and cleanthes_ (camb., 1891); article by e. wellmann in ersch and gruber's _allgemeine encyklopadie_; r. hirzel, _untersuchungen zu ciceros philosophischen schriften_, ii. (1882), containing a vindication of the originality of cleanthes; a.b. krische, _forschungen auf dem gebiete der alten philosophie_ (1840); also works quoted under stoics.