CHENG

cheng, tscheng or tschiang (ger. _scheng_), an ancient chinese wind instrument, a primitive organ, containing the principle of the free reed which found application in the accordion, concertina and harmonium. the cheng resembles a tea-pot filled with bamboo pipes of graduated lengths. it consists of a gourd or turned wooden receptacle acting as wind reservoir, in the side of which is inserted an insufflation tube curved like a swan's neck or the spout of a tea-pot. the cup-shaped reservoir is closed by means of a plate of horn pierced with seventeen round holes arranged round the edge in an unfinished circle, into which fit the bamboo pipes. the pipes are cylindrical as far as they are visible above the plate, but the lower end inserted in the wind reservoir is cut to the shape of a beak, somewhat like the mouthpiece of the clarinet, to receive the reed. the construction of the free reed is very simple: it consists of a thin plate of metal--gold according to the jesuit missionary joseph amiot,[1] but brass in the specimens brought to europe--of the thickness of ordinary paper. in this plate is cut a rectangular flap or tongue which remains fixed at one end, while at the other the tongue is filed so that, instead of closing the aperture, it passes freely through, vibrating as the air is forced through the pipe (see free-reed vibrator). the metal plate is fastened with wax longitudinally across the diameter of the beak end of the pipe, a little layer of wax being applied also to the free end of the vibrating tongue for the purpose of tuning by adding weight and impetus. about half an inch above the horn plate a small round hole or stop is bored through the pipe, which speaks only when this hole is covered by the finger. a longitudinal aperture about an inch long cut in the upper end of the bamboo pipe serves to determine the length of the vibrating column of air proper to respond to the vibrations of the free reed. the length of the bamboo above this opening is purely ornamental, as are also four or five of the seventeen pipes which have no reeds and do not speak, being merely inserted for the purposes of symmetry in design. the notes of the cheng, like those of the concertina, speak either by inspiration or expiration of air, the former being the more usual method. mahillon states that performers on the cheng in china are rare, as the method of playing by inspiration induces inflammation of the throat.[2] amiot, who gives a description of the instrument with illustrations showing the construction, states that in the great chinese encyclopaedia _eulh-ya_, articles _yu_ and _ho_, the _yu_ of ancient china was the large cheng with nineteen free reeds (twenty-four pipes), and the _ho_ the small cheng with thirteen reeds or seventeen pipes described in this article. the compass of the latter is given by him as the middle octave with chromatic intervals, the thirteenth note giving the octave of the first. mahillon gives the compass of a modern cheng as follows: [illustration] e.f.f. chladni,[3] who examined a cheng sent from china to herr muller, organist of the church of st nicholas, leipzig, at the beginning of the 19th century, gives an excellent description of the instrument, reproducing in illustration a plate from giulio ferrario's work on costume.[4] muller's cheng had the same compass as mahillon's. chladni's article was motived by the publication of an account of the exhibition of g.j. grenie's _orgue expressif_, invented about 1810, in the conservatoire of paris.[5] grenie's invention, perfected by alexandre and debain about 1840, produced the harmonium. kratzenstein (see under harmonium) of st petersburg was the first to apply the free reed to the organ in the second half of the 18th century. inventions of similar instruments, which after a short life were relegated to oblivion, followed at the beginning of the 19th century. an interesting reproduction of a persian cheng dating from the 10th or 11th century is to be seen on a persian vase described and illustrated together with a shawm in the _gazette archeologique_ (tome xi., 1886). (k. s.) footnotes: [1] _memoire sur la musique des chinois_ (paris, 1779), pp. 78 and 82, pl. vi., or _memoire sur les chinois_, tome vi. pl. vi. [2] _catalogue descriptif_, vol. ii. (ghent, 1896), p. 91; also vol. i. (1880), pp. 29, 44, 154. [3] "weitere nachrichten von dem ... chinesischen blasinstrumente tscheng oder tschiang," in _allgemeine musikalische zeitung_ (leipzig, 1821), bd. xxiii. no. 22, pp. 369, 374 et seq., and illustration appendix ii. [4] _il costume anticho e moderno_ (milan, 1816), pl. 66, vol. i. [5] see _allg. mus. zt._ (leipzig, 1821), bd. xxiii. nos. 9 and 10, pp. 133 and 149 et seq. chen-hai [chinhai], a district town of china, in the province of cheh-kiang, at the mouth of the yung-kiang, 12 m. n.e. of ningpo, in 29° 58' n., 121° 45' e. it lies at the foot of a hill on a tongue of land, and is partly protected from the sea on the n. by a dike about 3 m. long, composed entirely of large blocks of hewn granite. the walls are 20 ft. high and 3 m. in circumference. the defences were formerly of considerable strength, and included a well-built but now dismantled citadel on a precipitous cliff, 250 ft. high, at the extremity of the tongue of land on which the town is built. in the neighbourhood an engagement took place between the english and chinese in 1841. chenier, andre de (1762-1794), french poet, was born at constantinople on the 30th of october 1762. his father, louis chenier, a native of languedoc, after twenty years of successful commerce in the levant as a cloth-merchant, was appointed to a position equivalent to that of french consul at constantinople. his mother, elisabeth santi-lomaca, whose sister was grandmother of a. thiers, was a greek. when the poet was three years old his father returned to france, and subsequently from 1768 to 1775 served as consul-general of france in morocco. the family, of which andre was the third son, and marie-joseph (see below) the fourth, remained in france; and after a few years, during which andre ran wild with "la tante de carcasonne," he distinguished himself as a verse-translator from the classics at the college de navarre (the school in former days of gerson and bossuet) in paris. in 1783 he obtained a cadetship in a french regiment at strassburg. but the glamour of the military life was as soon exhausted by chenier as it was by coleridge. he returned to paris before the end of the year, was well received by his family, and mixed in the cultivated circle which frequented the salon of his mother, among them lebrun-pindare, lavoisier, lesueur, dorat, parmy, and a little later the painter david. he was already a poet by predilection, an idyllist and steeped in the classical archaism of the time, when, in 1784, his taste for the antique was confirmed by a visit to rome made in the company of two schoolfellows, the brothers trudaine. from naples, after visiting pompeii, he returned to paris, his mind fermenting with poetical images and projects, few of which he was destined to realize. for nearly three years, however, he was enabled to study and to experiment in verse without any active pressure or interruption from his family--three precious years in which the first phase of his art as a writer of idylls and bucolics, imitated to a large extent from theocritus, bion and the greek anthologists, was elaborated. among the poems written or at least sketched during this period were _l'oaristys_, _l'aveugle_, _la jeune malade_, _bacchus_, _euphrosine_ and _la jeune tarentine_, the last a synthesis of his purest manner, mosaic though it is of reminiscences of at least a dozen classical poets. as in glyptic so in poetic art, the hellenism of the time was decadent and alexandrine rather than attic of the best period. but chenier is always far more than an imitator. _la jeune tarentine_ is a work of personal emotion and inspiration. the colouring is that of classic mythology, but the spiritual element is as individual as that of any classical poem by milton, gray, keats or tennyson. apart from his idylls and his elegies, chenier also experimented from early youth in didactic and philosophic verse, and when he commenced his _hermes_ in 1783 his ambition was to condense the _encyclopedie_ of diderot into a poem somewhat after the manner of lucretius. this poem was to treat of man's position in the universe, first in an isolated state, and then in society. it remains fragmentary, and though some of the fragments are fine, its attempt at scientific exposition approximates too closely to the manner of erasmus darwin to suit a modern ear. another fragment called _l'invention_ sums chenier's _ars poetica_ in the verse "sur des pensers nouveaux, faisons des vers antiques." _suzanne_ represents the torso of a biblical poem on a very large scale, in six cantos. in the meantime, andre had published nothing, and some of these last pieces were in fact not yet written, when in november 1787 an opportunity of a fresh career presented itself. the new ambassador at the court of st james's, m. de la luzerne, was connected in some way with the chenier family, and he offered to take andre with him as his secretary. the offer was too good to be refused, but the poet hated himself on the banks of the _fiere tamise_, and wrote in bitter ridicule of "ces anglais. nation toute a vendre a qui peut la payer. de contree en contree allant au monde entier, offrir sa joie ignoble et son faste grossier." he seems to have been interested in the poetic diction of milton and thomson, and a few of his verses are remotely inspired by shakespeare and gray. to say, however, that he studied english literature would be an exaggeration. the events of 1789 and the startling success of his younger brother, marie-joseph, as political playwright and pamphleteer, concentrated all his thoughts upon france. in april 1790 he could stand london no longer, and once more joined his parents at paris in the rue de clery. the france that he plunged into with such impetuosity was upon the verge of anarchy. a strong constitutionalist, chenier took the view that the revolution was already complete and that all that remained to be done was the inauguration of the reign of law. moderate as were his views and disinterested as were his motives, his tactics were passionately and dangerously aggressive. from an idyllist and elegist we find him suddenly transformed into an unsparing master of poetical satire. his prose _avis au peuple francais_ (august 24, 1790) was followed by the rhetorical _jeu de paume_, a somewhat declamatory moral ode addressed "a louis david, peintre." in the meantime he orated at the feuillants club, and contributed frequently to the _journal de paris_ from november 1791 to july 1792, when he wrote his scorching _iambes_ to collot d'herbois, _sur les suisses revoltes du regiment de chateauvieux_. the 10th of august uprooted his party, his paper and his friends, and the management of relatives who kept him out of the way in normandy alone saved him from the massacre of september. in the month following these events his democratic brother, marie-joseph, had entered the convention. andre's sombre rage against the course of events found vent in the line on the maenads who mutilated the king's swiss guard, and in the _ode a charlotte corday_ congratulating france that "un scelerat de moins rampe dans cette fange." at the express request of malesherbes he furnished some arguments to the materials collected for the defence of the king. after the execution he sought a secluded retreat on the plateau de satory at versailles and took exercise after nightfall. there he wrote the poems inspired by fanny (mme laurent lecoulteux), including the exquisite _ode a versailles_, one of his freshest, noblest and most varied poems. his solitary life at versailles lasted nearly a year. on the 7th of march 1794 he was taken at the house of mme piscatory at passy. two obscure agents of the committee of public safety were in search of a marquise who had flown, but an unknown stranger was found in the house and arrested on suspicion. this was andre, who had come on a visit of sympathy. he was taken to the luxembourg and afterwards to saint-lazare. during the 140 days of his imprisonment there he wrote the marvellous _iambes_ (in alternate lines of 12 and 8 syllables), which hiss and stab like poisoned bullets, and which were transmitted to his family by a venal gaoler. there he wrote the best known of all his verses, the pathetic _jeune captive_, a poem at once of enchantment and of despair. suffocating in an atmosphere of cruelty and baseness, chenier's agony found expression almost to the last in these murderous _iambes_ which he launched against the convention. ten days before the end, the painter j.b. suvee executed the well-known portrait. he might have been overlooked but for the well-meant, indignant officiousness of his father. marie-joseph had done his best to prevent this, but he could do nothing more. robespierre, who was himself on the brink of the volcano, remembered the venomous sallies in the _journal de paris_. at sundown on the 25th of july 1794, the very day of his condemnation on a bogus charge of conspiracy, andre chenier was guillotined. the record of his last moments by la touche is rather melodramatic and is certainly not above suspicion. incomplete as was his career--he was not quite thirty-two--his life was cut short in a crescendo of all its nobler elements. exquisite as was already his susceptibility to beauty and his mastership of the rarest poetic material, we cannot doubt that chenier was preparing for still higher flights of lyric passion and poetic intensity. nothing that he had yet done could be said to compare in promise of assured greatness with the _iambes_, the _odes_ and the _jeune captive_. at the moment he left practically nothing to tell the world of his transcendent genius, and his reputation has had to be retrieved from oblivion page by page, and almost poem by poem. during his lifetime only his _jeu de paume_ (1791) and _hymne sur les suisses_ (1792) had been given to the world. the _jeune captive_ appeared in the _decade philosophique_, jan. 9, 1795; _la jeune tarentine_ in the _mercure_ of march 22, 1801. chateaubriand quoted three or four passages in his _genie du christianisme_. fayette and lefeuvre-deumier also gave a few fragments; but it was not until 1819 that a first imperfect attempt was made by h. de la touche to collect the poems in a substantive volume. since the appearance of the _editio princeps_ of chenier's poems in la touche's volume, many additional poems and fragments have been discovered, and an edition of the complete works of the poet, collated with the mss. bequeathed to the bibliotheque nationale by mme elisa de chenier in 1892, has been edited by paul dimoff and published by delagrave. during the same period the critical estimates of the poet have fluctuated in a truly extraordinary manner. sainte-beuve in his _tableau_ of 1828 sang the praises of chenier as an heroic forerunner of the romantic movement and a precursor of victor hugo. chenier, he said, had "inspired and determined" romanticism. this suggestion of modernity in chenier was echoed by a chorus of critics who worked the idea to death; in the meantime, the standard edition of chenier's works was being prepared by m. becq de fouquieres and was issued in 1862, but rearranged and greatly improved by the editor in 1872. the same patient investigator gave his new documents on andre chenier to the world in 1875. in the second volume of _la vie litteraire_ anatole france contests the theory of sainte-beuve. far from being an initiator, he maintains that chenier's poetry is the last expression of an expiring form of art. his matter and his form belong of right to the classic spirit of the 18th century. he is a contemporary, not of hugo and leconte de lisle, but of suard and morellet. m. faguet sums up on the side of m. france in his volume on the 18th century (1890). chenier's real disciples, according to the latest view, are leconte de lisle and m. de heredia, _mosaistes_ who have at heart the cult of antique and pagan beauty, of "pure art" and of "objective poetry." heredia himself reverted to the judgment of sainte-beuve to the effect that chenier was the first to make modern verses, and he adds, "i do not know in the french language a more exquisite fragment than the three hundred verses of the _bucoliques_." chenier's influence has been specially remarkable in russia, where pushkin imitated him, kogloff translated _la jeune captive_, _la jeune tarentine_ and other famous pieces, while the critic vesselovsky pronounces "il a retabli le lyrisme pur dans la poesie francaise." the general french verdict on his work is in the main well summed by morillot, when he says that, judged by the usual tests of the romantic movement of the 'twenties (love for strange literatures of the north, medievalism, novelties and experiments), chenier would inevitably have been excluded from the _cenacle_ of 1827. on the other hand, he exhibits a decided tendency to the world-ennui and melancholy which was one of the earlier symptoms of the movement, and he has experimented in french verse in a manner which would have led to his excommunication by the typical performers of the 18th century. what is universally admitted is that chenier was a very great artist, who like ronsard opened up sources of poetry in france which had long seemed dried up. in england it is easier to feel his attraction than that of some far greater reputations in french poetry, for, rhetorical though he nearly always is, he yet reveals something of that quality which to the northern mind has always been of the very essence of poetry, that quality which made sainte-beuve say of him that he was the first great poet "personnel et reveur" in france since la fontaine. his diction is still very artificial, the poetic diction of delille transformed in the direction of hugo, but not very much. on the other hand, his descriptive power in treating of nature shows far more art than the trianin school ever attained. his love of the woodland and his political fervour often remind us of shelley, and his delicate perception of hellenic beauty, and the perfume of greek legend, give us almost a foretaste of keats. for these reasons, among others, chenier, whose art is destined to so many vicissitudes of criticism in his own country, seems assured among english readers of a place among the dii majores of french poetry. the chenier literature of late years has become enormous. his fate has been commemorated in numerous plays, pictures and poems, notably in the fine epilogue of sully prudhomme, the _stello_ of a. de vigny, the delicate statue by puech in the luxembourg, and the well-known portrait in the centre of the "last days of the terror." the best editions are still those of becq de fouquieres (paris, 1862, 1872 and 1881), though these are now supplemented by those of l. moland (2 vols., 1889) and r. guillard (2 vols., 1899). (t. se.) chenier, marie-joseph blaise de (1764-1811), french poet, dramatist and politician, younger brother of andre de chenier, was born at constantinople on the 11th of february 1764.[1] he was brought up at carcassonne, and educated in paris at the college de navarre. entering the army at seventeen, he left it two years afterwards; and at nineteen he produced _azemire_, a two-act drama (acted in 1786), and _edgar, ou le page suppose_, a comedy (acted in 1785), which were failures. his _charles ix_ was kept back for nearly two years by the censor. chenier attacked the censorship in three pamphlets, and the commotion aroused by the controversy raised keen interest in the piece. when it was at last produced on the 4th of november 1789, it achieved an immense success, due in part to its political suggestion, and in part to talma's magnificent impersonation of charles ix. camille desmoulins said that the piece had done more for the revolution than the days of october, and a contemporary memoir-writer, the marquis de ferriere, says that the audience came away "ivre de vengeance et tourmente d'une soif de sang." the performance was the occasion of a split among the actors of the comedie francaise, and the new theatre in the palais royal, established by the dissidents, was inaugurated with _henri viii_ (1791), generally recognized as chenier's masterpiece; _jean calas, ou l'ecole des juges_ followed in the same year. in 1792 he produced his _caius gracchus_, which was even more revolutionary in tone than its predecessors. it was nevertheless proscribed in the next year at the instance of the montagnard deputy albitte, for an anti-anarchical hemistich (_des lois et non du sang!_); _fenelon_ (1793) was suspended after a few representations; and in 1794 his _timoleon_, set to etienne mehul's music, was also proscribed. this piece was played after the fall of the terror, but the fratricide of timoleon became the text for insinuations to the effect that by his silence joseph de chenier had connived at the judicial murder of andre, whom joseph's enemies alluded to as _abel_. there is absolutely nothing to support the calumny, which has often been repeated since. in fact, after some fruitless attempts to save his brother, variously related by his biographers, joseph became aware that andre's only chance of safety lay in being forgotten by the authorities, and that ill-advised intervention would only hasten the end. joseph chenier had been a member of the convention and of the council of five hundred, and had voted for the death of louis xvi.; he had a seat in the tribunate; he belonged to the committees of public instruction, of general security, and of public safety. he was, nevertheless, suspected of moderate sentiments, and before the end of the terror had become a marked man. his purely political career ended in 1802, when he was eliminated with others from the tribunate for his opposition to napoleon. in 1801 he was one of the educational jury for the seine; from 1803 to 1806 he was inspector-general of public instruction. he had allowed himself to be reconciled with napoleon's government, and _cyrus_, represented in 1804, was written in his honour, but he was temporarily disgraced in 1806 for his _epitre a voltaire_. in 1806 and 1807 he delivered a course of lectures at the athenee on the language and literature of france from the earliest years; and in 1808 at the emperor's request, he prepared his _tableau historique de l'etat et du progres de la litterature francaise depuis 1789 jusqu'a 1808_, a book containing some good criticism, though marred by the violent prejudices of its author. he died on the 10th of january 1811. the list of his works includes hymns and national songs--among others, the famous _chant du depart_; odes, _sur la mort de mirabeau_, _sur l'oligarchie de robespierre_, &c.; tragedies which never reached the stage, _brutus et cassius_, _philippe deux_, _tibere_; translations from sophocles and lessing, from gray and horace, from tacitus and aristotle; with elegies, dithyrambics and ossianic rhapsodies. as a satirist he possessed great merit, though he sins from an excess of severity, and is sometimes malignant and unjust. he is the chief tragic poet of the revolutionary period, and as camille desmoulins expressed it, he decorated melpomene with the tricolour cockade. see the _oeuvres completes de joseph chenier_ (8 vols., paris, 1823-1826), containing notices of the poet by arnault and daunou; charles labitte, _etudes litteraires_ (1846); henri welschinger, _le theatre revolutionnaire, 1789-1799_ (1881); and a. lieby, _etude sur le theatre de marie-joseph chenier_(1902). footnote: [1] this is the date given by g. de chenier in his _la verite sur la famille de chenier_ (1844). chenille (from the fr. _chenille_, a hairy caterpillar), a twisted velvet cord, woven so that the short outer threads stand out at right angles to the central cord, thus giving a resemblance to a caterpillar. chenille is used as a trimming for dress and furniture.