CHARLES

charles, 4th duke of guise (1571-1640), was imprisoned for three years after his father's death. he married henriette catherine de joyeuse, widow of the duke of montpensier. his eldest son predeceased him, and he was succeeded by his second son henry (1614-1664), who had been archbishop of reims, but renounced the ecclesiastical estate and became 5th duke. he made an attempt (1647) on the crown of naples, and was a prisoner in spain from 1648 to 1652. a second expedition to naples in 1654 was a fiasco. he was succeeded by his nephew, louis joseph (1650-1671), as 6th duke. with his son, francis joseph (1670-1675), the line failed; and the title and estates passed to his great-aunt, marie of lorraine, duchess of guise (1615-1688), daughter of the 4th duke, and with her the title became extinct. the title is now vested in the family of the bourbon-orleans princes. genealogical table of the house of guise rene ii. (who united the two branches of the house of lorraine), duke of lorraine, and philippa of gelderland, had (besides two older boys who died in childhood, and four unmarried daughters) | +--------------+--------------+------+-----+------------+-----------+ | | | | | | antoine, claude, john, ferri, louis, francis, duke of 1st duke of 1st cardinal killed at killed at killed at lorraine, guise, of lorraine. marignano. naples. pavia. +1544, +1550, ancestor of = antoinette the dukes of of bourbon. lorraine and the | house of mercoeur. | | +--------------+------------+-------------+------------+----------+------------+---------+ | | | | | | | | francis, charles, claude, louis, francis, rene, marie = and 2nd duke of 2nd cardinal marquis of 1st cardinal grand marquis (1) duke of five guise, of lorraine, mayenne and of guise, prior. of elbeuf, longueville, others. +1563. +1574. and duke of +1578 +1566. (2) james v. = anne of aumale, | of scotland. este. +1573. | | | = louise de breze. | mary stuart, | | | queen of | charles, charles, scots. | duke of aumale, duke of elbeuf, | +1631. +1605. | +----+-------------+-------------+----------------+-------------------+ | | | | | henry, charles, louis, catherine = and five others. 3rd duke, duke of 2nd cardinal louis de bourbon, +1588 mayenne, of guise, duke of =catherine +1611. +1588. montpensier. of cleves | (and had | 14 children). | | henry, | duke of mayenne, | +1621. | ---+--------------------+-------------------------+---------------------+ | | | | charles, claude, louis, and eleven more. 4th duke of guise, duke of chevreuse, 3rd cardinal of guise, +1640. = marie de rohan, +1621. | widow of the duke of luynes. | +------------------------+-------------------------+------------------+ | | | | henry, marie, louis, and eight archbishop of reims, called mlle. de guise, chevalier of guise and more. and 5th duke, succeeded to the duchy duke of joyeuse, +1664. in 1675 and sold her +1654. rights to louis augustus, | duke of maine. louis-joseph, 6th duke of guise, +1671. | francis-joseph, 7th and last duke of guise, +1675. authorities.--a number of contemporary documents relating to the guises are included by l. cimber and f. danjou in their _archives curieuses de l'histoire de france_ (paris, 1834, &c.). vol. iii. contains a soldier's diary of the siege of metz, first published in italian (lyons, 1553), accounts of the sieges of calais (tours, 1558). of thionville (paris, 1558); vol. iv. an account of the tumult of amboise from the _memoires_ of conde, and four accounts of the affair of vassy; vol. v. four accounts of the battle of dreux, one dictated by guise, and accounts of the murder of guise; vol. xi. accounts of the parisian revolution of 1558; and vol. xii. numerous pamphlets and pieces dealing with the murder of henry of guise and his brother. an account of the murder of guise and of the subsequent measures taken by mayenne, which was supplied by the venetian ambassador, g. mocenigo, to his government, is printed by h. brown in the _eng. hist. rev._ (april 1895). for the foreign policy of the guises, and especially their relations with scotland, there is abundant material in the english _calendar of state papers_ of queen elizabeth (foreign series) and in the correspondence of cardinal granvella. the memoirs of francis, duke of guise, covering the years 1547 to 1563, were published by michel and poujoulat in series 1, vol. iv. of their _coll. de memoires_. among contemporary memoirs see especially those of the prince of conde, of blaise de monluc and of gaspard de saulx-tavannes. see also _la vie de f. de lorraine, duc de guise_ (paris, 1681), by j. b. h. du trousset de valincourt; a. de ruble, _l'assassinat de f. de lorraine, duc de guise_ (1897), where there is a list of the ms. sources available for a history of the house; r. de bouille, _hist. des ducs de guise_ (4 vols., 1849); h. forneron, _les guise et leur epoque_ (2 vols., 1887). footnotes: [1] this incident supplied alexandre dumas _pere_ with the subject of his _henri iii et sa cour_ (1829). [2] philippe-emmanuel of lorraine, duke of mercoeur, a cadet of lorraine and brother of louise de vaudemont, henry iii.'s queen. his wife, mary of luxemburg, descended from the dukes of brittany, and he was made governor of the province in 1582. he aspired to separate sovereignty, and called his son prince and duke of brittany. guitar (fr. _guitarre_, ger. _guitarre_, ital. _chitarra_, span. _guitarra_), a musical instrument strung with gut strings twanged by the fingers, having a body with a flat back and graceful incurvations in complete contrast to the members of the family of lute (i.e.), whose back is vaulted. the construction of the instrument is of paramount importance in assigning to the guitar its true position in the history of musical instruments, midway between the cithara (i.e.) and the violin. the medieval stringed instruments with neck fall into two classes, characterized mainly by the construction of the body: (1) those which, like their archetype the cithara, had a body composed of a flat or delicately arched back and soundboard joined by ribs. (2) those which, like the lyre, had a body consisting of a vaulted back over which was glued a flat soundboard without the intermediary of ribs; this method of construction predominates among oriental instruments and is greatly inferior to the first. a striking proof of this inferiority is afforded by the fact that instruments with vaulted backs, such as the rebab or rebec, although extensively represented during the middle ages in all parts of europe by numerous types, have shown but little or no development during the course of some twelve centuries, and have dropped out one by one from the realm of practical music without leaving a single survivor. the guitar must be referred to the first of these classes. [illustration: notation.] [illustration: real sounds.] the back and ribs of the guitar are of maple, ash or cherry-wood, frequently inlaid with rose-wood, mother-of-pearl, tortoise-shell, &c., while the soundboard is of pine and has one large ornamental rose sound hole. the bridge, to which the strings are fastened, is of ebony with an ivory nut which determines the one end of the vibrating strings, while the nut at the end of the fingerboard determines the other. the neck and fingerboard are made of hard wood, such as ebony, beech or pear. the head, bent back from the neck at an obtuse angle contains two parallel barrels or long holes through which the pegs or metal screws pass, three on each side of the head. the correct positions for stopping the intervals are marked on the fingerboard by little metal ridges called frets. the modern guitar has six strings, three of gut and three of silk covered with silver wire, tuned as shown. to the thumb are assigned the three deepest strings, while the first, second and third fingers are used to twang the highest strings. it is generally stated that the sixth or lowest string was added in 1790 by jacob august otto of jena, who was the first in germany to take up the construction of guitars after their introduction from italy in 1788 by the duchess amalie of weimar. otto[1] states that it was capellmeister naumann of dresden who requested him to make him a guitar with six strings by adding the low e, a spun wire string. the original guitar brought from italy by the duchess amalie had five strings,[2] the lowest a being the only one covered with wire. otto also covered the d in order to increase the fulness of the tone. in spain six-stringed guitars and vihuelas were known in the 16th century; they are described by juan bermudo[3] and others.[4] the lowest string was tuned to g. other spanish guitars of the same period had four, five or seven strings or courses of strings in pairs of unisons. they were always twanged by the fingers. [illustration: from juan bermudo. fig. 1.--spanish guitar with seven strings. 1555. _vihuela da mano_.] the guitar is derived from the cithara[5] both structurally and etymologically. it is usually asserted that the guitar was introduced into spain by the arabs, but this statement is open to the gravest doubts. there is no trace among the instruments of the arabs known to us of any similar to the guitar in construction or shape, although a guitar (fig. 2) with slight incurvations was known to the ancient egyptians.[6] there is also extant a fine example of the guitar, with ribs and incurvations and a long neck provided with numerous frets, on a hittite bas-relief on the dromos at euyuk (_c_. 1000 b.c.) in cappadocia.[7] unless other monuments of much later date should come to light showing guitars with ribs, we shall be justified in assuming that the instrument, which required skill in construction, died out in egypt and in asia before the days of classic greece, and had to be evolved anew from the cithara by the greeks of asia minor. that the evolution should take place within the byzantine empire or in syria would be quite consistent with the traditions of the greeks and their veneration for the cithara, which would lead them to adapt the neck and other improvements to it, rather than adopt the rebab, the tanbur or the barbiton from the persians or arabians. this is, in fact, what seems to have taken place. it is true that in the 14th century in an enumeration of musical instruments by the archipreste de hita, a _guitarra morisca_ is mentioned and unfavourably compared with the _guitarra latina_; moreover, the arabs of the present day still use an instrument called _kuitra_ (which in n. africa would be guithara), but it has a vaulted back, the body being like half a pear with a long neck; the strings are twanged by means of a quill. the arab instrument therefore belongs to a different class, and to admit the instrument as the ancestor of the spanish guitar would be tantamount to deriving the guitar from the lute.[8] by piecing together various indications given by spanish writers, we obtain a clue to the identity of the medieval instruments, which, in the absence of absolute proof, is entitled to serious consideration. from bermudo's work, quoted above, we learn that the guitar and the _vihuela da mano_ were practically identical, differing only in accordance and occasionally in the number of strings.[9] three kinds of vihuelas were known in spain during the middle ages, distinguished by the qualifying phrases _da arco_ (with bow), _da mano_ (by hand), _da penola_ (with quill). spanish scholars[10] who have inquired into this question of identity state that the _guitarra latina_ was afterwards known as the _vihuela da mano_, a statement fully supported by other evidence. as the arab _kuitra_ was known to be played by means of a quill, we shall not be far wrong in identifying it with the _vihuela da penola_. the word _vihuela_ or _vigola_ is connected with the latin _fidicula_ or _fides_, a stringed instrument mentioned by cicero[11] as being made from the wood of the plane-tree and having many strings. the remaining link in the chain of identification is afforded by st isidore, bishop of seville in the 7th century, who states that fidicula was another name for cithara, "veteres aut citharas fidicula vel fidice nominaverunt."[12] the fidicula therefore was the cithara, either in its original classical form or in one of the transitions which transformed it into the guitar. the existence of a superior _guitarra latina_ side by side with the _guitarra morisca_ is thus explained. it was derived directly from the classical cithara introduced by the romans into spain, the archetype of the structural beauty which formed the basis of the perfect proportions and delicate structure of the violin. in an inventory[13] made by philip van wilder of the musical instruments which had belonged to henry viii. is the following item bearing on the question: "foure gitterons with iiii. cases _they are called spanishe vialles_." _vial_ or _viol_ was the english equivalent of _vihuela_. the transitions whereby the cithara acquired a neck and became a guitar are shown in the miniatures (fig. 3) of a single ms., the celebrated utrecht psalter, which gave rise to so many discussions. the utrecht psalter was executed in the diocese of reims in the 9th century, and the miniatures, drawn by an anglo-saxon artist attached to the reims school, are unique, and illustrate the psalter, psalm by psalm. it is evident that the anglo-saxon artist, while endowed with extraordinary talent and vivid imagination, drew his inspiration from an older greek illustrated psalter from the christian east,[14] where the evolution of the guitar took place. [illustration: from denon's _voyage in egypt_. fig. 2.--ancient egyptian guitar. 1700 to 1200 b.c.] [illustration: fig. 3.--instrumentalists from the utrecht psalter, 9th century: (a) the bass rotta, first transition of cithara in (c); (b, c, d), transitions showing the addition of neck to the body of the cithara.] [illustration: from dr h. janitschek's _geschichte der deutschen malerei_. fig. 4.--representation of a european guitar. a.d. 1180.] one of the earliest representations (fig. 4) of a guitar in western europe occurs in a passionale from zwifalten a.d. 1180, now in the royal library at stuttgart.[15] st pelagia seated on an ass holds a rotta, or cithara in transition, while one of the men-servants leading her ass holds her guitar. both instruments have three strings and the characteristic guitar outline with incurvations, the rotta differing in having no neck. mersenne[16] writing early in the 17th century describes and figures two spanish guitars, one with four, the other with five strings; the former had a cittern head, the latter the straight head bent back at an obtuse angle from the neck, as in the modern instrument; he gives the italian, french and spanish tablatures which would seem to show that the guitar already enjoyed a certain vogue in france and italy as well as in spain. mersenne states that the proportions of the guitar demand that the length of the neck from shoulder to nut shall be equal to the length of the body from the centre of the rose to the tail end. from this time until the middle of the 19th century the guitar enjoyed great popularity on the continent, and became the fashionable instrument in england after the peninsular war, mainly through the virtuosity of ferdinand sor, who also wrote compositions for it. this popularity of the guitar was due less to its merits as a solo instrument than to the ease with which it could be mastered sufficiently to accompany the voice. the advent of the spanish guitar in england led to the wane in the popularity of the cittern, also known at that time in contradistinction as the english or wire-strung guitar, although the two instruments differed in many particulars. as further evidence of the great popularity of the guitar all over europe may be instanced the extraordinary number of books extant on the instrument, giving instructions how to play the guitar and read the tablature.[17] (k. s.) footnotes: [1] _uber den bau der bogeninstrumente_ (jena, 1828), pp. 94 and 95. [2] see pietro millioni, _vero e facil modo d' imparare a sonare et accordare da se medesimo la chitarra spagnola_, with illustration (rome, 1637). [3] _declaracion de instrumentos musicales_ (ossuna, 1555), fol. xciii. _b_ and fol. xci. _a_. see also illustration of _vihuela da mano_. [4] see also g. g. kapsperger, _libro primo di villanelle con l' infavolutura del chitarone et alfabeto per la chitarra spagnola_ (three books, rome, 1610-1623). [5] see kathleen schlesinger, _the instruments of the orchestra_, part ii. "precursors of the violin family," pp. 230-248. [6] see denon's _voyage in egypt_ (london, 1807, pl. 55). [7] illustrated from a drawing in perrot and chipiez, "judee sardaigne, syrie, cappadoce." vol. iv. of _hist. de l'art dans l'antiquite_, paris, 1887, p. 670. also see plate from a photograph by prof. john garstang, in kathleen schlesinger, _op. cit._ [8] see biernath, _die guitarre_ (1908). [9] see also luys milan, _libro de musica de vihuela da mano, intitulado il maestro_, where the accordance is d, g, c, e, a, d from bass to treble. [10] mariano soriano, _fuertes historia de la musica espanola_ (madrid, 1855), i. 105, and iv. 208, &c. [11] _de natura deorum_, ii. 8, 22. [12] see _etymologiarium_, lib. iii., cap. 21. [13] see british museum, harleian ms. 1419, fol. 200. [14] the literature of the utrecht psalter embraces a large number of books and pamphlets in many languages of which the principal are here given: professor j. o. westwood, _facsimiles of the miniatures and ornaments of anglo-saxon and irish mss._ (london, 1868); sir thos. duffus-hardy, _report on the athanasian creed in connection with the utrecht psalter_ (london, 1872); _report on the utrecht psalter_, addressed to the trustees of the british museum (london, 1874); sir thomas duffus-hardy, _further report on the utrecht psalter_ (london, 1874); walter de gray birch, _the history, art and palaeography of the ms. styled the utrecht psalter_ (london, 1876); anton springer, "die psalterillustrationen im fruhen mittelalter mit besonderer rucksicht auf den utrecht psalter," _abhandlungen der kgl. sachs. ges. d. wissenschaften, phil.-hist. klasse_, bd. viii. pp. 187-296, with 10 facsimile plates in autotype from the ms.; adolf goldschmidt, "der utrecht psalter," in _repertorium fur kunstwissenschaft_, bd. xv. (stuttgart, 1892), pp. 156-166; franz friedrich leitschuh, _geschichte der karolingischen malerei, ihr bilderkreis und seine quellen_ (berlin, 1894), pp. 321-330; adolf goldschmidt, _der albani psalter in hildesheim_, &c. (berlin, 1895); paul durrieu, _l'origine du ms. celebre dit le psaultier d'utrecht_ (paris, 1895); hans graeven, "die vorlage des utrecht psalters," paper read before the xi. international oriental congress, paris, 1897. see also _repertorium fur kunstwissenschaft_ (stuttgart, 1898), bd. xxi. pp. 28-35; j. j. tikkanen, _abendlandische psalter-illustration im mittelalter_, part iii. "der utrecht psalter" (helsingfors, 1900), 320 pp. and 77 ills. (professor tikkanen now accepts the greek or syrian origin of the utrecht psalter); georg swarzenski, "die karolingische malerei und plastik in reims." in _jahrbuch d. kgl. preussischen kunstsammlungen_, bd. xxiii. (berlin, 1902), pp. 81-100; ormonde m. dalton, "the crystal of lothair," in _archaologie_, vol. lix. (1904); kathleen schlesinger, _the instruments of the orchestra_, part ii. "the precursors of the violin family," chap. viii. "the question of the origin of the utrecht psalter," pp. 352-382 (with illustrations), where all the foregoing are summarized. [15] reproduced in hubert janitschek's _geschichte der deutschen malerei_, bd. iii. of _gesch. der deutschen kunst_ (berlin, 1890), p. 118. [16] _harmonie universelle_ (paris, 1636), livre ii. prop. xiv. [17] see c. f. becker, _darstellung der musik. literatur_ (leipzig, 1836); and wilhelm tappert, "zur geschichte der guitarre," in _monatshefte fur musikgeschichte_ (berlin, 1882), no. 5. pp. 77-85. guitar fiddle (_troubadour fiddle_), a modern name bestowed retrospectively upon certain precursors of the violin possessing characteristics of both guitar and fiddle. the name "guitar fiddle" is intended to emphasize the fact that the instrument in the shape of the guitar, which during the middle ages represented the most perfect principle of construction for stringed instruments with necks, adopted at a certain period the use of the bow from instruments of a less perfect type, the rebab and its hybrids. the use of the bow with the guitar entailed certain constructive changes in the instrument: the large central rose sound-hole was replaced by lateral holes of various shapes; the flat bridge, suitable for instruments whose strings were plucked, gave place to the arched bridge required in order to enable the bow to vibrate each string separately; the arched bridge, by raising the strings higher above the soundboard, made the stopping of strings on the neck extremely difficult if not impossible; this matter was adjusted by the addition of a finger-board of suitable shape and dimensions (fig. 1). at this stage the guitar fiddle possesses the essential features of the violin, and may justly claim to be its immediate predecessor[1] not so much through the viols which were the outcome of the minnesinger fiddle with sloping shoulders, as through the intermediary of the italian _lyra_, a guitar-shaped bowed instrument with from 7 to 12 strings. [illustration: from ruhlmann's _geschichte der bogeninstrumente_. fig. 1.--typical alto guitar fiddle, 15th century (pinakothek, munich).] from such evidence as we now possess, it would seem that the evolution of the early guitar with a neck from the greek cithara took place under greek influence in the christian east. the various stages of this transition have been definitely established by the remarkable miniatures of the utrecht psalter.[2] two kinds of citharas are shown: the antique rectangular,[3] and the later design with rounded body having at the point where the arms are added indications of the waist or incurvations characteristic of the outline of the spanish guitar.[4] the first stage in the transition is shown by a cithara or rotta[5] in which arms and transverse bar are replaced by a kind of frame repeating the outline of the body and thus completing the second lobe of the spanish guitar. the next stages in the transition are concerned with the addition of a neck[6] and of frets.[7] all these instruments are twanged by the fingers. one may conclude that the use of the bow was either unknown at this time (c. 6th century a.d.), or that it was still confined to instruments of the rebab type. the earliest known representation of a guitar fiddle complete with bow[8] (fig. 2) occurs in a greek psalter written and illuminated in caesarea by the archpriest theodorus in 1066 (british museum, add. ms. 19352). instances of perfect guitar fiddles abound in the 13th century mss. and monuments, as for instance in a picture by cimabue (1240-1302). in the pitti gallery in florence.[9] [illustration: from a byzantine ms. in the british museum. fig. 2.--earliest example of the guitar fiddle. a.d. 1066.] an evolution on parallel lines appears also to have taken place from the antique rectangular cithara[10] of the _citharoedes_, which was a favourite in romano-christian art.[11] in this case examples illustrative of the transitions are found represented in great variety in europe. the old german rotta[12] of the 6th century preserved in the volker museum, berlin, and the instruments played by king david in two early anglo-saxon illuminated mss., one a psalter (cotton ms. vesp. a. i. british museum) finished in a.d. 700, the other "a commentary on the psalms by cassiodorus _manu bedae_" of the 8th century preserved in the cathedral library at durham[13] form examples of the first stage of transition. from such types as these the rectangular _crwth_ or crowd was evolved by the addition of a finger-board and the reduction in the number of strings, which follows as a natural consequence as soon as an extended compass can be obtained by stopping the strings. by the addition of a neck we obtain the clue to the origin of rectangular citterns with rounded corners and of certain instruments played with the bow whose bodies or sound-chests have an outline based upon the rectangle with various modifications. we may not look upon this type of guitar fiddle as due entirely to western or southern european initiative; its origin like that of the type approximating to the violin is evidently byzantine. it is found among the frescoes which cover walls and barrel vaults in the palace of kosseir 'amra,[14] believed to be that of caliph walid ii. (a.d. 744) of the omayyad dynasty, or of prince ahmad, the abbasid (862-866). the instrument, a cittern with four strings, is being played by a bear. other examples occur in the stuttgart carolingian psalter[15] (10th century); in ms. 1260 (bibl. imp. paris) _tristan and yseult_; as guitar fiddle in the liber regalis preserved in westminster abbey (14th century); in the sforza book[16] (1444-1476), the book of hours executed for bona of savoy, wife of galeazzo maria sforza; on one of the carvings of the 13th century in the cathedral of amiens. it has also been painted by italian artists of the 15th and 16th centuries. (k. s.) footnotes: [1] see "the precursors of the violin family," by kathleen schlesinger, part ii. of _an illustrated handbook on the instruments of the orchestra_ (london, 1908), chs. ii. and x. [2] see kathleen schlesinger, _op. cit._ part ii., the "utrecht psalter," pp. 127-135, and the "question of the origin of the utrecht psalter," pp. 136-166, where the subject is discussed and illustrated. [3] _idem_, see pl. vi. (2) to the right centre. [4] _idem_, see pl. iii. centre and figs. 118 and 119. [5] _idem_, see fig. 117, p. 341, and figs. 172 and 116. [6] _idem_, see fig. 121, p. 246, figs. 122, 123, 125 and 126 pl. iii. vi. (1) and (2). [7] _idem_, see fig. 126, p. 350, and pl. iii. right centre. [8] _idem_, see fig. 173, p. 448. [9] _idem_, see fig. 205, p. 480. [10] see _museo pio clementino_, by visconti (milan, 1818). [11] see for example _georgics_, iv. 471-475 in the vatican virgil (cod. 3225), in facsimile (rome, 1899) (british museum press-mark 8, tab. f. vol. ii.). [12] this rotta was found in an alamannic tomb of the 4th to the 7th centuries at oberflacht in the black forest. a facsimile is preserved in the collection of the kgl. hochschule, berlin, illustrations in "grabfunde am berge lupfen bei oberflacht, 1846," _jahresberichte d. wurttemb. altertums-vereins_, iii. (stuttgart, 1846), tab. viii. also kathleen schlesinger, _op. cit._ part ii. fig. 168 (drawing from the facsimile). [13] reproductions of both miniatures are to be found in professor j. o. westwood's _facsimiles of the miniatures and ornaments of anglo-saxon and irish mss._ (london, 1868). [14] an illustration occurs in the fine publication of the austrian academy of sciences, _kusejr 'amra_ (vienna, 1907, pl. xxxiv.). [15] see reproduction of some of the miniatures in jacob and h. von hefner-alteneck, _trachten des christlichen mittelalters_ (darmstadt. 1840-1854, 3 vols.), and in _trachten, kunstwerke und geratschaften vom fruhen mittelalter_ (frankfort-on-main, 1879-1890), [16] add. ms. 34294, british museum, vol. ii. fol. 83, 161, vol. iii. fol. 402, vol. iv. fols. 534 and 667.