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    "source_title": "Encyclopaedia Britannica (1911)",
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    "title": "CHARLES",
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    "verified_text": "charles, thomas (1755-1814), welsh nonconformist divine, was born of humble parentage at longmoor, in the parish of llanfihangel abercywyn, near st clears, carmarthenshire, on the 14th of october 1755. he was educated for the anglican ministry at llanddowror and carmarthen, and at jesus college, oxford (1775-1778). in 1777 he studied theology under the evangelical john newton at olney. he was ordained deacon in 1778 on the title of the curacies of shepton beauchamp and sparkford, somerset; and took priest's orders in 1780. he afterwards added to his charge at sparkford, lovington, south barrow and north barrow, and in september 1782 was presented to the perpetual curacy of south barrow by the rev. john hughes, coln st denys. but he never left sparkford, though the contrary has been maintained, until he resigned all his curacies in june 1783, and returned to wales, marrying (on august 20th) sarah jones of bala, the orphan of a flourishing shopkeeper. he had early fallen under the influence of the great revival movement in wales, and at the age of seventeen had been \"converted\" by a sermon of daniel rowland's. this was enough to make him unpopular with many of the welsh clergy, and being denied the privilege of preaching for nothing at two churches, he helped his old oxford friend john mayor, now vicar of shawbury, shropshire, from october until january 11th, 1784. on the 25th of january he took charge of llan yn mowddwy (14 m. from bala), but was not allowed to continue there more than three months. three influential people, among them the rector of bala, agitated some of the parishioners against him, and persuaded his rector to dismiss him. his preaching, his catechizing of the children after evensong, and his connexion with the bala methodists--his wife's step-father being a methodist preacher--gave great offence. after a fortnight more at shawbury, he wrote to john newton and another clergyman friend in london for advice. the church of england denied him employment, and the methodists desired his services. his friends advised him to return to england, but it was too late. by september he had crossed the rubicon, henry newman (his rector at shepton beauchamp and sparkford) accompanying him on a tour in carnarvonshire. in december, he was preaching at the bont uchel association; so that he joined the methodists (see calvinistic methodists) in 1784. before taking this step, he had been wont in his enforced leisure to gather the poor children of bala into his house for instruction, and so thickly did they come that he had to adjourn with them to the chapel. this was the origin of the welsh circulating schools, which he developed on the lines adopted by griffith jones (d. 1761), formerly vicar of llanddowror. first one man was trained for the work by himself, then he was sent to a district for six months, where, (for l8 a year) he taught gratis the children and young people (in fact, all comers) reading and christian principles. writing was added later. the expenses were met by collections made in the calvinistic methodist societies, and as the funds increased masters were multiplied, until in 1786 charles had seven masters to whom he paid l10 per annum; in 1787, twelve; in 1789, fifteen; in 1794, twenty. by this time the salary had been increased to l12; in 1801 it was l14. he had learnt of raikes's sunday schools before he left the establishment, but he rightly considered the system set on foot by himself far superior; the work and object being the same, he gave six days' tuition for every one given by them, and many people not only objected to working as teachers on sunday, but thought the children forgot in the six days what they learnt on the one. but sunday schools were first adopted by charles to meet the case of young people in service who could not attend during the week, and even in that form much opposition was shown to them because teaching was thought to be a form of sabbath breaking. his first sunday school was in 1787. wilberforce, charles grant, john thornton and his son henry, were among the philanthropists who contributed to his funds; in 1798 the sunday school society (established 1785) extended its operations to wales, making him its agent, and sunday schools grew rapidly in number and favour. a powerful revival broke out at bala in the autumn of 1791, and his account of it in letters to correspondents, sent without his knowledge to magazines, kindled a similar fire at huntly. the scarcity of welsh bibles was charles's greatest difficulty in his work. john thornton and thomas scott helped him to secure supplies from the society for the promotion of christian knowledge from 1787 to 1789, when the stock became all but exhausted. in 1799 a new edition was brought out by the society, and he managed to secure 700 copies of the 10,000 issued; the sunday school society got 3000 testaments printed, and most of them passed into his hands in 1801. in 1800, when a frost-bitten thumb gave him great pain and much fear for his life, his friend, rev. philip oliver of chester, died, leaving him director and one of three trustees over his chapel at boughton; and this added much to his anxiety. the welsh causes at manchester and london, too, gave him much uneasiness, and burdened him with great responsibilities at this juncture. in november 1802 he went to london, and on the 7th of december he sat at a committee meeting of the religious tract society, as a country member, when his friend, joseph tarn--a member of the spa fields and religious tract society committees--introduced the subject of a regular supply of bibles for wales. charles was asked to state his case to the committee, and so forcibly did he impress them, that it was there and then decided to move in the matter of a general dispersion of the bible. when he visited london a year later, his friends were ready to discuss the name of a new society, and the sole object of which should be to supply bibles. charles returned to wales on the 30th of january 1804, and the british and foreign bible society was formally and publicly inaugurated on march the 7th. the first welsh testament issued by that society appeared on the 6th of may 1806, the bible on the 7th of may 1807--both being edited by charles. between 1805 and 1811 he issued his biblical dictionary in four volumes, which still remains the standard work of its kind in welsh. three editions of his welsh catechism were published for the use of his schools (1789, 1791 and 1794); an english catechism for the use of schools in lady huntingdon's connexion was drawn up by him in 1797; his shorter catechism in welsh appeared in 1799, and passed through several editions, in welsh and english, before 1807, when his _instructor_ (still the connexional catechism) appeared. from april 1799 to december 1801 six numbers of a welsh magazine called _trysorfa ysprydol_ (spiritual treasury) were edited by thomas jones of mold and himself; in march 1809 the first number of the second volume appeared, and the twelfth and last in november 1813. the london hibernian society asked him to accompany dr david bogue, the rev. joseph hughes, and samuel mills to ireland in august 1807, to report on the state of protestant religion in the country. their report is still extant, and among the movements initiated as a result of their visit was the circulating school system. in 1810, owing to the growth of methodism and the lack of ordained ministers, he led the connexion in the movement for connexionally ordained ministers, and his influence was the chief factor in the success of that important step. from 1811 to 1814 his energy was mainly devoted to establishing auxiliary bible societies. by correspondence he stimulated some friends in edinburgh to establish charity schools in the highlands, and the gaelic school society (1811) was his idea. his last work was a corrected edition of the welsh bible issued in small pica by the bible society. as a preacher he was in great request, though possessing but few of the qualities of the popular preacher. all his work received very small remuneration; the family was maintained by the profits of a business managed by mrs charles--a keen, active and good woman. he died on the 5th of october 1814. his influence is still felt, and he is rightly claimed as one of the makers of modern wales. (d. e. j.) charles albert [carlo alberto] (1798-1849), king of sardinia (piedmont), son of prince charles of savoy-carignano and princess albertine of saxe-courland, was born on the 2nd of october 1798, a few days before the french occupied piedmont and forced his cousin king charles emmanuel to take refuge in sardinia. although prince and princess carignano adhered to the french republican regime, they soon fell under suspicion and were summoned to paris. prince charles died in 1800, and his widow married a count de montleart and for some years led a wandering existence, chiefly in switzerland, neglecting her son and giving him mere scraps of education, now under a devotee of j.j. rousseau, now under a genevan calvinist. in 1802 king charles emmanuel abdicated in favour of his brother victor emmanuel i.; the latter's only son being dead, his brother charles felix was heir to the throne, and after him charles albert. on the fall of napoleon in 1814 the piedmontese court returned to turin and the king was anxious to secure the succession for charles albert, knowing that austria meditated excluding him from it in favour of an austrian archduke, but at the same time he regarded him as an objectionable person on account of his revolutionary upbringing. charles albert was summoned to turin, given tutors to instruct him in legitimist principles, and on the 1st of october 1817 married the archduchess maria theresa of tuscany, who, on the 14th of march 1820, gave birth to victor emmanuel, afterwards king of italy. the piedmontese government at this time was most reactionary, and had made a clean sweep of all french institutions. but there were strong italian nationalists and anti-austrian tendencies among the younger nobles and army officers, and the carbonari and other revolutionary societies had made much progress. their hopes centred in the young carignano, whose agreeable manners had endeared him to all, and who had many friends among the liberals and carbonari. early in 1820 a revolutionary movement was set on foot, and vague plans of combined risings all over italy and a war with austria were talked of. charles albert no doubt was aware of this, but he never actually became a carbonaro, and was surprised and startled when after the outbreak of the neapolitan revolution of 1820 some of the leading conspirators in the piedmontese army, including count santorre di santarosa and count san marzano, informed him that a military rising was ready and that they counted on his help (2nd march 1821). he induced them to delay the outbreak and informed the king, requesting him, however, not to punish anyone. on the 10th the garrison of alessandria mutinied, and two days later turin was in the hands of the insurgents, the people demanding the spanish constitution. the king at once abdicated and appointed charles albert regent. the latter, pressed by the revolutionists and abandoned by his ministers, granted the constitution and sent to inform charles felix, who was now king, of the occurrence. charles felix, who was then at modena, repudiated the regent's acts, accepted austrian military assistance, with which the rising was easily quelled, and exiled charles albert to florence. the young prince found himself the most unpopular man in italy, for while the liberals looked on him as a traitor, to the king and the conservatives he was a dangerous revolutionist. at the congress of verona (1822) the austrian chancellor, prince metternich, tried to induce charles felix to set aside charles albert's rights of succession. but the king was piqued by austria's interference, and as both the grand-duke of tuscany and the duke of wellington supported him, charles albert's claims were respected. france having decided to intervene in the spanish revolution on the side of autocracy, charles albert asked permission to join the duc d'angouleme's expedition. the king granted it and the young prince set out for spain, where he fought with such gallantry at the storming of the trocadero (1st of september 1823) that the french soldiers proclaimed him the \"first grenadier of france.\" but it was not until he had signed a secret undertaking binding himself, as soon as he ascended the throne, to place himself under the tutelage of a council composed of the higher clergy and the knights of the annunziata, and to maintain the existing forms of the monarchy (d. berti, _cesare alfieri_, xi. 77, rome, 1871), that he was allowed to return to turin and forgiven. on the death of charles felix (27th of april 1831) charles albert succeeded; he inherited a kingdom without an army, with an empty treasury, a chaotic administration and medieval laws. his first task was to set his house in order; he reorganized the finances, created the army, and started piedmont on a path which if not liberalism was at least progress. \"he was,\" wrote his reactionary minister, count della margherita, \"hostile to austria from the depths of his soul and full of illusions as to the possibility of freeing italy from dependence on her.... as for the revolutionaries, he detested them but feared them, and was convinced that sooner or later he would be their victim.\" in 1833 a conspiracy of the _giovane italia_ society, organized by mazzini, was discovered, and a number of its members punished with ruthless severity. on the election in 1846 of pius ix., who appeared to be a liberal and an italian patriot, the eyes of all italy were turned on him as the heaven-born leader who was to rescue the country from the foreigner. this to some extent reconciled the king to the liberal movement, for it accorded with his religious views. \"i confess,\" he wrote to the marquis of villamarina, in 1847, \"that a war of national independence which should have for its object the defence of the pope would be the greatest happiness that could befall me.\" on the 30th of october he issued a decree granting wide reforms, and when risings broke out in other parts of italy early in 1848 and further liberties were demanded, he was at last induced to grant the constitution (8th february). when the news of the milanese revolt against the austrians reached turin (19th of march) public opinion demanded that the piedmontese should succour their struggling brothers; and after some hesitation the king declared war. but much time had been wasted and many precious opportunities lost. with an army of 60,000 piedmontese troops and 30,000 men from other parts of italy the king took the field, and after defeating the austrians at pastrengo on the 30th of april, and at goito on the 30th of may, where he was himself slightly wounded, more time was wasted in useless operations. radetzky, the austrian general, having received reinforcements, drove the centre of the extended italian line back across the mincio (23rd of july), and in the two days' fighting at custozza (24th and 25th of july) the piedmontese were beaten, forced to retreat, and to ask for an armistice. on re-entering milan charles albert was badly received and reviled as a traitor by the republicans, and although he declared himself ready to die defending the city the municipality treated with radetzky for a capitulation; the mob, urged on by the demagogues, made a savage demonstration against him at the palazzo greppi, whence he escaped in the night with difficulty and returned to piedmont with his defeated army. [** amended from armp] the french republic offered to intervene in the spring of 1848, but charles albert did not desire foreign aid, the more so as in this case it would have had to be paid for by the cession of nice and savoy. the revolutionary movement throughout italy was breaking down, but charles albert felt that while he possessed an army he could not abandon the lombards and venetians, and determined to stake all on a last chance. on the 12th of march 1849 he denounced the armistice and took the field again with an army of 80,000 men, but gave the chief command to the polish general chrzanowski. general ramorino commanding the lombard division proved unable to prevent the austrians from crossing the ticino (20th of april), and chrzanowski was completely out-generalled and defeated at la bicocca near novara on the 23rd. the piedmontese fought with great bravery, and the unhappy king sought death in vain. after the battle he asked terms of radetzky, who demanded the occupation by austria of a large part of piedmont and the heir to the throne as a hostage. thereupon, feeling himself to be the obstacle to better conditions, charles albert abdicated in favour of his son victor emmanuel. that same night he departed alone and made his way to oporto, where he retired into a monastery and died on the 28th of july 1849. charles albert was not a man of first-rate ability; he was of a hopelessly vacillating character. devout and mystical to an almost morbid degree, hating revolution and distrusting liberalism, he was a confirmed pessimist, yet he had many noble qualities: he was brave to the verge of foolhardiness, devoted to his country, and ready to risk his crown to free italy from the foreigner. to him the people of italy owe a great debt, for if he failed in his object he at least materialized the idea of the risorgimento in a practical shape, and the charges which the republicans and demagogues brought against him were monstrously unjust. bibliography.--besides the general works on modern italy, see the marquis costa de beauregard's interesting volumes _la jeunesse du roi charles albert_ (paris, 1899) and _novare et oporto_ (1890), based on the king's letters and the journal of sylvain costa, his faithful equerry, though the author's views are those of an old-fashioned savoyard who dislikes the idea of italian unity; ernesto masi's _il segreto del re carlo alberto_ (bologna, 1891) is a very illuminating essay; domenico perrero, _gli ultimi reali di savoia_ (turin, 1889); l. cappelletti, _storia di carlo alberto_ (rome, 1891); nicomede bianchi, _storia della diplomazia europea in italia_ (8 vols., turin, 1865, &c.), a most important work of a general character, and the same author's _scritti e lettere di carlo alberto_ (rome, 1879) and his _storia della monarchia piemontese_ (turin, 1877); count s. della margherita, _memorandum storico-politico_ (turin, 1851). charles augustus [karl august] (1757-1828), grand-duke of saxe-weimar, son of constantine, duke of saxe-weimar-eisenach, and anna amalia of brunswick, was born on the 3rd of september 1757. his father died when he was only nine months old, and the boy was brought up under the regency and supervision of his mother, a woman of enlightened but masterful temperament. his governor was count eustach von gorz, a german nobleman of the old strait-laced school; but a more humane element was introduced into his training when, in 1771, wieland was appointed his tutor. in 1774 the poet karl ludwig von knebel came to weimar as tutor to the young prince constantine; and in the same year the two princes set out, with count gorz and knebel, for paris. at frankfort, knebel introduced karl august to the young goethe: the beginning of a momentous friendship. in 1775 karl august returned to weimar, and the same year came of age and married princess louise of hesse-darmstadt. one of the first acts of the young grand-duke was to summon goethe to weimar, and in 1776 he was made a member of the privy council. \"people of discernment,\" he said, \"congratulate me on possessing this man. his intellect, his genius is known. it makes no difference if the world is offended because i have made dr goethe a member of my most important _collegium_ without his having passed through the stages of minor official professor and councillor of state.\" to the undiscerning, the beneficial effect of this appointment was not at once apparent. with goethe the \"storm and stress\" spirit descended upon weimar, and the stiff traditions of the little court dissolved in a riot of youthful exuberance. the duke was a deep drinker, but also a good sportsman; and the revels of the court were alternated with break-neck rides across country, ending in nights spent round the camp fire under the stars. karl august, however, had more serious tastes. he was interested in literature, in art, in science; critics, unsuspected of flattery, praised his judgment in painting; biologists found in him an expert in anatomy. nor did he neglect the government of his little state. his reforms were the outcome of something more than the spirit of the \"enlightened despots\" of the 18th century; for from the first he had realized that the powers of the prince to play \"earthly providence\" were strictly limited. his aim, then, was to educate his people to work out their own political and social salvation, the object of education being in his view, as he explained later to the dismay of metternich and his school, to help men to \"independence of judgment.\" to this end herder was summoned to weimar to reform the educational system; and it is little wonder that, under a patron so enlightened, the university of jena attained the zenith of its fame, and weimar became the intellectual centre of germany. meanwhile, in the affairs of germany and of europe the character of karl august gave him an influence out of all proportion to his position as a sovereign prince. he had early faced the problem presented by the decay of the empire, and began to work for the unity of germany. the plans of the emperor joseph ii., which threatened to absorb a great part of germany into the heterogeneous habsburg monarchy, threw him into the arms of prussia, and he was the prime mover in the establishment of the league of princes (_furstenbund_) in 1785, by which, under the leadership of frederick the great, joseph's intrigues were frustrated. he was, however, under no illusion as to the power of austria, and he wisely refused the offer of the hungarian crown, made to him in 1787 by prussia at the instance of the magyar malcontents, with the dry remark that he had no desire to be another \"winter king.\" in 1788 karl august took service in the prussian army as major-general in active command of a regiment. as such he was present, with goethe, at the cannonade of valmy in 1792, and in 1794 at the siege of mainz and the battles of pirmasenz (september 14) and kaiserslautern (october 28-30). after this, dissatisfied with the attitude of the powers, he resigned; but rejoined on the accession of his friend king frederick william iii. to the prussian throne. the disastrous campaign of jena (1806) followed; on the 14th of october, the day after the battle, weimar was sacked; and karl august, to prevent the confiscation of his territories, was forced to join the confederation of the rhine. from this time till after the moscow campaign of 1812 his contingent fought under the french flag in all napoleon's wars. in 1813, however, he joined the grand alliance, and at the beginning of 1814 took the command of a corps of 30,000 men operating in the netherlands. at the congress of vienna karl august was present in person, and protested vainly against the narrow policy of the powers in confining their debates to the \"rights of the princes\" to the exclusion of the \"rights of the people.\" his services in the war of liberation were rewarded with an extension of territory and the title of grand-duke; but his liberal attitude had already made him suspect, and his subsequent action brought him still further into antagonism to the reactionary powers. he was the first of the german princes to grant a liberal constitution to his state under article xiii. of the act of confederation (may 5, 1816); and his concession of full liberty to the press made weimar for a while the focus of journalistic agitation against the existing order. metternich dubbed him contemptuously \"der grosse bursche\" for his patronage of the \"revolutionary\" _burschenschaften_; and the celebrated \"festival\" held at the wartburg by his permission in 1818, though in effect the mildest of political demonstrations, brought down upon him the wrath of the great powers. karl august, against his better judgment, was compelled to yield to the remonstrances of prussia, austria and russia; the liberty of the press was again restricted in the grand-duchy, but, thanks to the good understanding between the grand-duke and his people, the regime of the carlsbad decrees pressed less heavily upon weimar than upon other german states. karl august died on the 14th of june 1828. upon his contemporaries of the most various types his personality made a great impression. karl von dalberg, the prince-primate, who owed the coadjutorship of mainz to the duke's friendship, said that he had never met a prince \"with so much understanding, character, frankness and true-heartedness\"; the milanese, when he visited their city, called him the \"uomo principe\"; and goethe himself said of him \"he had the gift of discriminating intellects and characters and setting each one in his place. he was inspired by the noblest good-will, the purest humanity, and with his whole soul desired only what was best. there was in him something of the divine. he would gladly have wrought the happiness of all mankind. and finally, he was greater than his surroundings,... everywhere he himself saw and judged, and in all circumstances his surest foundation was in himself.\" he left two sons: charles frederick (d. 1853), by whom he was succeeded, and bernhard, duke of saxe-weimar (1792-1862), a distinguished soldier, who, after the congress of vienna, became colonel of a regiment in the service of the king of the netherlands, distinguished himself as commander of the dutch troops in the belgian campaign of 1830, and from 1847 to 1850 held the command of the forces in the dutch east indies. bernhard's son, william augustus edward, known as prince edward of saxe-weimar (1823-1902), entered the british army, served with much distinction in the crimean war, and became colonel of the 1st life guards and a field marshal; in 1851 he contracted a morganatic marriage with lady augusta gordon-lennox (d. 1904), daughter of the 5th duke of richmond and gordon, who in germany received the title of countess of dornburg, but was granted the rank of princess in great britain by royal decree in 1866. karl august's only daughter, caroline, married frederick louis, hereditary grand-duke of mecklenburg-schwerin, and was the mother of helene (1814-1858), wife of ferdinand, duke of orleans, eldest son of king louis philippe. karl august's correspondence with goethe was published in 2 vols. at weimar in 1863. see the biography by von wegele in the _allgem. deutsche biographie._ charles edward [charles edward louis philip casimir stuart] (1720-1788), english prince, called the \"young pretender\" and also the \"young chevalier,\" was born at rome on december 31st, 1720. he was the grandson of king james ii. of england and elder son of james, the \"old pretender,\" by whom (as james iii.) he was created at his birth prince of wales, the title he bore among the english jacobites during his father's lifetime. the young prince was educated at his father's miniature court in rome, with james murray, jacobite earl of dunbar, for his governor, and under various tutors, amongst whom were the learned chevalier ramsay, sir thomas sheridan and the abbe legoux. he quickly became conversant with the english, french and italian languages, but all his extant letters written in english appear singularly ill-spelt and illiterate. in 1734 his cousin, the duke of liria, afterwards duke of berwick, who was proceeding to join don carlos in his struggle for the crown of naples, passed through rome. he offered to take charles on his expedition, and the boy of thirteen, having been appointed general of artillery by don carlos, shared with credit the dangers of the successful siege of gaeta. the handsome and accomplished youth, whose doings were eagerly reported by the english ambassador at florence and by the spy, john walton, at rome, was now introduced by his father and the pope to the highest italian society, which he fascinated by the frankness of his manner and the grace and dignity of his bearing. in 1737 james despatched his son on a tour through the chief italian cities, that his education as a prince and man of the world might be completed. the distinction with which he was received on his journey, the royal honours paid to him in venice, and the jealous interference of the english ambassador in regard to his reception by the grand-duke of tuscany, show how great was the respect in which the exiled house was held at this period by foreign catholic powers, as well as the watchful policy of england in regard to its fortunes. the old pretender himself calculated upon foreign aid in his attempts to restore the monarchy of the stuarts; and the idea of rebellion unassisted by invasion or by support of any kind from abroad was one which it was left for charles edward to endeavour to realize. of all the european nations france was the one on which jacobite hopes mainly rested, and the warm sympathy which cardinal tencin, who had succeeded fleury as french minister, felt for the old pretender resulted in a definite scheme for an invasion of england to be timed simultaneously with a prearranged scottish rebellion. charles was secretly despatched to paris in january 1744. a squadron under admiral roquefeuil sailed from the coast of france. transports containing 7000 troops, to be led by marshal saxe, accompanied by the young prince, were in readiness to set sail for england. a severe storm effected, however, a complete disaster without any actual engagement taking place. the loss in ships of the line, in transports, and in lives was a crushing blow to the hopes of charles, who remained in france for over a year in a retirement which he keenly felt. he had at rome already made the acquaintance of lord elcho and of john murray of broughton; at paris he had seen many supporters of the stuart cause; he was aware that in every european court the jacobites were represented in earnest intrigue; and he had now taken a considerable share in correspondence and other actual work connected with the promotion of his own and his father's interests. although dissuaded by all his friends, on the 13th of july 1745 he sailed from nantes for scotland on board the small brig \"la doutelle,\" which was accompanied by a french man-of-war, the \"elisabeth,\" laden with arms and ammunition. the latter fell in with an english man-of-war, the \"lion,\" and had to return to france; charles escaped during the engagement, and at length arrived on the 2nd of august off erisca, a little island of the hebrides. receiving, however, but a cool reception from macdonald of boisdale, he set sail again and arrived at the bay of lochnanuagh on the west coast of inverness-shire. the macdonalds of clanranald and kinloch moidart, along with other chieftains, again attempted to dissuade him from the rashness of an unaided rising, but they yielded at last to the enthusiasm and charm of his manner, and charles landed on scottish soil in the company of the \"seven men of moidart\" who had come with him from france. everywhere, however, he met with discouragement among the chiefs, whose adherence he wished to secure; but at last, by enlisting the support of cameron of lochiel, he gained a footing for a serious rebellion. with secrecy and speed communications were entered into with the known leaders of the highland clans, and on the 19th of august, in the valley of glenfinnan, the standard of james iii. and viii. was raised in the midst of a motley but increasing crowd. on the same day sir john cope at the head of 1500 men left edinburgh in search of charles; but, fearing an attack in the pass of corryarrick, he changed his proposed route to inverness, and charles thus had the undefended south country before him. in the beginning of september he entered perth, having gained numerous accessions to his forces on his march. crossing the forth unopposed at the fords of frew and passing through stirling and linlithgow, he arrived within a few miles of the astonished metropolis, and on the 16th of september a body of his skirmishers defeated the dragoons of colonel gardiner in what was known as the \"canter of coltbrig.\" his success was still further augmented by his being enabled to enter the city, a few of cameron's highlanders having on the following morning, by a happy ruse, forced their way through the canon-gate. on the 18th he publicly proclaimed james viii. of scotland at the market cross and occupied holyrood. cope had by this time brought his disappointed forces by sea to dunbar. on the 20th charles met and defeated him at prestonpans, and returned to prosecute the siege of edinburgh castle, which, however, he raised on general guest's threatening to lay the city in ruins. in the beginning of november charles left edinburgh, never to return. he was at the head of at least 6000 men; but the ranks were being gradually thinned by the desertion of highlanders, whose traditions had led them to consider war merely as a raid and an immediate return with plunder. having passed through kelso, on the 9th of november he laid siege to carlisle, which capitulated in a week. manchester received the prince with a warm welcome and with 150 recruits under francis towneley. on the 4th of december he had reached derby and was within ten days' march of london, where the inhabitants were terror-struck and a commercial panic immediately ensued. two armies under english leadership were now in the field against him, one under marshal wade, whom he had evaded by entering england by the west, and the other under william, duke of cumberland, who had returned from the continent. london was not to be supposed helpless in such an emergency; manchester, glasgow and dumfries, rid of his presence, had risen against him, and charles paused. there was division among his advisers and desertion among his men, and on the 6th of december he reluctantly was forced to begin his retreat northward. closely pursued by cumberland, he marched by way of carlisle across the border, and at last stopped to invest stirling castle. at falkirk, on the 17th of january 1746, he defeated general hawley, who had marched from edinburgh to intercept his retreat. a fortnight later, however, charles raised the siege of stirling, and after a weary though successful march rested his troops at inverness. having taken forts george and augustus, and after varying success against the supporters of the government in the north, he at last prepared to face the duke of cumberland, who had passed the early spring at aberdeen. on the 8th of april the duke marched thence to meet charles, whose little army, exhausted with a futile night march, half-starving, and broken by desertion, was completely worsted at culloden on the 16th of april 1746. this decisive and cruel defeat sealed the fate of charles edward and the house of stuart. accompanied by the faithful ned burke and a few other followers, charles at last gained the wild western coast. hunted hither and thither, he wandered on foot or cruised restlessly in open boats among the many barren isles of the scottish shore, enduring the greatest hardships with marvellous courage and cheerfulness. charles, upon whose head a reward l30,000 had a year before been set, was thus for over five months relentlessly pursued by the troops and spies of the government. disguised in female attire and aided by a passport obtained by the devoted flora macdonald, he passed through skye and parted from his gallant conductress at portree. towards the end of july he took refuge in the cave of coiraghoth in the braes of glenmoriston, and in august he joined lochiel and cluny macpherson, with whom he remained in hiding until the news was brought that two french ships were in waiting for him at the place of his first arrival in scotland--lochnanuagh. he embarked with speed and sailed for france, reaching the little port of roscoff, near morlaix, on the 29th of september 1746. he was warmly welcomed by louis xv., and ere long he was again vigorously intriguing in paris, and even in madrid. so far as political assistance was concerned, his efforts proved fruitless, but he became at once the popular hero and idol of the people of paris. so enraged was he with his brother henry's acceptance of a cardinal's hat in july 1747, that he deliberately broke off communication with his father in rome (who had approved the step), nor did he ever see him again. the enmity of the british government to charles edward made peace with france an impossibility so long as she continued to harbour the young prince. a condition of the treaty of aix-la-chapelle, concluded in october 1748, was that every member of the house of stuart should be expelled the french dominions. charles had forestalled the proclamation of the treaty by an indignant protest against its injustice, and a declaration that he would not be bound by its provisions. but his indignation and persistent refusal to comply with the request that he should voluntarily leave france had to be met at last with force: he was apprehended, imprisoned for a week at vincennes, and on the 17th of december conducted to the french border. he lingered at avignon; but the french, compelled to hard measures by the english, refused to be satisfied; and pope benedict xiv., alarmed by the threat of a bombardment of civita vecchia, advised the prince to withdraw. charles quietly disappeared; for years europe watched for him in vain. it is now established, almost with certainty, that he returned to the neighbourhood of paris; and it is supposed that his residence was known to the french ministers, who, however, firmly proclaimed their ignorance. in 1750, and again, it is thought, in 1754, he was in london, hatching futile plots and risking his safety for his hopeless cause, and even abjuring the roman catholic faith in order to further his political interests. during the next ten years of his life charles edward's illicit connexion with miss clementina walkinshaw (d. 1802), whom he had first met at bannockburn house while conducting the siege of stirling, his imperious fretful temper, his drunken habits and debauched life, could no longer be concealed. he wandered over europe in disguise, alienating the friends and crushing the hopes of his party; and in 1766, on returning to rome at the death of his father, he was treated by pope clement xiii. with coldness, and his title as heir to the british throne was openly repudiated by all the great catholic powers. it was probably through the influence of the french court, still intriguing against england, that the marriage between charles (now self-styled count of albany) and princess louise of stolberg was arranged in 1772. the union proved childless and unhappy, and in 1780 the countess fled for refuge from her husband's drunken violence to a convent in florence, where charles had been residing since 1774. later, the countess of albany (q.v.) threw herself on the protection of her brother-in-law henry, cardinal york, at rome, and the formal separation between the ill-matched pair was finally brought about in 1784, chiefly through the kind offices of king gustavus iii. of sweden. charles, lonely, ill, and evidently near death, now summoned to florence his natural daughter, charlotte stuart, the child of clementina walkinshaw, born at liege in october 1753 and hitherto neglected by the prince. charlotte stuart, who was declared legitimate and created duchess of albany, tended her father for the remaining years of his life, during which she contrived to reconcile the two stuart brothers, so that in 1785 charles returned to rome, where he died in the old palazzo muti on the 30th of january 1788. he was buried in his brother's cathedral church at frascati, but in 1807 his remains were removed to the _grotte vaticane_ of st peter's. his daughter charlotte survived her father less than two years, dying unmarried at bologna in november 1789, at the early age of thirty-six. see a.c. ewald, _life and times of charles stuart, the young pretender_ (2 vols., 1875); c.s. terry, _life of the young pretender_, and _the rising of 1745; with bibliography of jacobite history 1689--1788_ (scott. hist. fr. contemp. writers, iii.) (1900); earl stanhope, _history of england_ (1836) and _decline of the last stuarts_ (1854); bishop r. forbes, _the lyon in mourning_ (1895-1896); andrew lang, _pickle, the spy_ (1897), and _prince charles edward_ (1900); r. chambers, _history of the rebellion in scotland_, &c. &c. (h. m. v.) charles emmanuel i. [carlo emanuele] (1562-1630), duke of savoy, succeeded his father, emmanuel philibert, in 1580. he continued the latter's policy of profiting by the rivalry of france and spain in order to round off and extend his dominions. his three chief objects were the conquest of geneva, of saluzzo and of monferrato. saluzzo he succeeded in wresting from france in 1588. he intervened in the french religious wars, and also fought with bern and other swiss cantons, and on the murder of henry iii. of france in 1580 he aspired to the french throne on the strength of the claims of his wife catherine, sister of henry of navarre, afterwards king henry iv. in 1590 he sent an expedition to provence in the interests of the catholic league, and followed it himself later, but the peace of 1593, by which henry of navarre was recognized as king of france, put an end to his ambitions. in the war between france and spain charles sided with the latter, with varying success. finally, by the peace of lyons (1601), he gave up all territories beyond the rhone, but his possession of saluzzo was confirmed. he now meditated a further enterprise against geneva; but his attempt to capture the city by treachery and with the help of spain (the famous _escalade_) in 1602 failed completely. the next few years were filled with negotiations and intrigues with spain and france which did not lead to any particular result, but on the death in 1612 of duke francesco gonzaga of mantua, who was lord of monferrato, charles emmanuel made a successful _coup de main_ on that district. this arrayed the venetians, tuscany, the empire and spain against him, and he was obliged to relinquish his conquest. the spaniards invaded the duchy from lombardy, and although the duke was defeated several times he fought bravely, gained some successes, and the terms of the peace of 1618 left him more or less in the _status quo ante_. we next find charles emmanuel aspiring to the imperial crown in 1619, but without success. in 1628 he was in alliance with spain in the war against france; the french invaded the duchy, which, being abandoned by spain, was overrun by their armies. the duke fought desperately, but was taken ill at savigliano and died in 1630. he was succeeded by his son victor amedeo i., while his third son tommaso founded the line of savoy-carignano from which the present royal house of italy is descended. charles emmanuel achieved a great reputation as a statesman and warrior, and increased the prestige of savoy, but he was too shifty and ingenious, and his schemes ended in disaster. see e. ricotti, _storia della monarchia piemontese_, vols. iii. and iv. (florence, 1865); t. raulich, _storia di carlo emanuele i._ (milan, 1896-1902); g. curti, _carlo emanuele i. secondo; piu recenti studii_ (milan, 1894). charles martel[1] (c. 688-741), frankish ruler, was a natural son of pippin ii., mayor of the palace, and chalpaida. charles was baptized by st rigobert, bishop of reims. at the death of his father in 714, pippin's widow plectrude claimed the government in austrasia and neustria in the name of her grandchildren, and had charles thrown into prison. but the neustrians threw off the austrasian yoke and entered into an offensive alliance with the frisians and saxons. in the general anarchy charles succeeded in escaping, defeated the neustrians at ambleve, south of liege, in 716, and at vincy, near cambrai, in 717, and forced them to come to terms. in austrasia he wrested the power from plectrude, and took the title of mayor of the palace, thus prejudicing the interests of his nephews. according to the frankish custom he proclaimed a king in austrasia in the person of the young clotaire iv., but in reality charles was the sole master--the entry in the annals for the year 717 being \"carolus regnare coepit.\" once in possession of austrasia, charles sought to extend his dominion over neustria also. in 719 he defeated ragenfrid, the neustrian mayor of the palace, at soissons, and forced him to retreat to angers. ragenfrid died in 731, and from that time charles had no competitor in the western kingdom. he obliged the inhabitants of burgundy to submit, and disposed of the burgundian bishoprics and countships to his _leudes_. in aquitaine duke odo (eudes) exercised independent authority, but in 719 charles forced him to recognize the suzerainty of northern france, at least nominally. after the alliance between charles and odo on the field of poitiers, the mayor of the palace left aquitaine to odo's son hunald, who paid homage to him. besides establishing a certain unity in gaul, charles saved it from a very great peril. in 711 the arabs had conquered spain. in 720 they crossed the pyrenees, seized narbonensis, a dependency of the kingdom of the visigoths, and advanced on gaul. by his able policy odo succeeded in arresting their progress for some years; but a new vali, abdur rahman, a member of an extremely fanatical sect, resumed the attack, reached poitiers, and advanced on tours, the holy town of gaul. in october 732--just 100 years after the death of mahomet--charles gained a brilliant victory over abdur rahman, who was called back to africa by the revolts of the berbers and had to give up the struggle. this was the last of the great arab invasions of europe. after his victory charles took the offensive, and endeavoured to wrest narbonensis from the mussulmans. although he was not successful in his attempt to recover narbonne (737), he destroyed the fortresses of agde, beziers and maguelonne, and set fire to the amphitheatre at nimes. he subdued also the germanic tribes; annexed frisia, where christianity was beginning to make progress; put an end to the duchy of alemannia; intervened in the internal affairs of the dukes of bavaria; made expeditions into saxony; and in 738 compelled some of the saxon tribes to pay him tribute. he also gave st boniface a safe conduct for his missions in thuringia, alemannia and bavaria. during the government of charles martel important changes appear to have been made in the internal administration. under him began the great assemblies of nobles known as the _champs de mars_. to attach his _leudes_ charles had to give them church lands as _precarium_, and this had a very great influence in the development of the feudal system. it was from the _precarium_, or ecclesiastical benefice, that the feudal fief originated. vassalage, too, acquired a greater consistency at this period, and its rules began to crystallize. under charles occurred the first attempt at reconciliation between the papacy and the franks. pope gregory iii., menaced by the lombards, invoked the aid of charles (739), sent him a deputation with the keys of the holy sepulchre and the chains of st peter, and offered to break with the emperor and constantinople, and to give charles the roman consulate (_ut a partibus imperatoris recederet et romanum consulatum carolo sanciret_). this proposal, though unsuccessful, was the starting-point of a new papal policy. since the death of theuderich iv. in 737 there had been no king of the franks. in 741 charles divided the kingdom between his two sons, as though he were himself master of the realm. to the elder, carloman, he gave austrasia, alemannia and thuringia, with suzerainty over bavaria; the younger, pippin, received neustria, burgundy and provence. shortly after this division of the kingdom charles died at quierzy on the 22nd of october 741, and was buried at st denis. the characters of charles martel and his grandson charlemagne offer many striking points of resemblance. both were men of courage and activity, and the two men are often confused in the _chansons de geste_. see t. breysig, _jahrbucher d. frank. reichs, 714--741; die zeit karl martells_ (leipzig, 1869); a.a. beugnot, \"sur la spoliation des biens du clerge attribuee a charles martel,\" in the _mem. de l'acad. des inscr. et belles-lettres_, vol. xix. (paris, 1853); ulysse chevalier, _bio-bibliographie_ (2nd ed., paris, 1904). (c. pf.) footnote: [1] or \"the hammer.\"",
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