CATANZARO

catanzaro, a town and episcopal see of calabria, italy, capital of the province of catanzaro, 1125 ft. above sea-level. pop. (1901) 22,799 (town); 32,005 (commune). the station for the town (catanzaro sala) is situated on a branch line connecting the two main lines along the east and west coasts of calabria, 6 m. n. by w. of catanzaro marina on the east coast, and 20 m. e. of s. eufemia biforcazione, on the west coast line. the town enjoys a comparatively cool climate in summer, and commands fine views. numerous wealthy families reside here, and the town has a trade in olive-oil, silk and velvet. the castle, built by robert guiscard, has been modernized, and so has the cathedral. the see was founded in 1121. the provincial museum contains antiquities and especially coins from the ancient cities of magna graecia, and a few pictures. cataphyll (gr. [greek: kata], down, [greek: phullon], leaf), a botanical term for the early leaf-forms produced in the lower part of a shoot, such as bud-scales, or scales on underground stems. catapult (lat. _catapulta_, gr. [greek: katapeltes]) a generic name for warlike engines of the cross-bow type used by the ancients. although engines of war appear on assyrian remains, and are mentioned in 2 chronicles xxvi. 15, it appears that greek armies, even of the 5th century, did not possess them, and the first record of a large siege train in classical literature is of the year 399 b.c., when dionysius i. of syracuse, contemplating an expedition against carthage, provided himself with engines. from sicily siege engines found their way some years later into greece; they were used by philip of macedon at the siege of byzantium in 340, and thereafter, as a natural consequence of the regularizing or professionalizing of armies, artillery, as we may call it, came into prominence and called into existence technical corps to work it. the war engines of the romans, during the republic and early principate, are of the same type as those of alexander's successors in greece. they are usually classed as (a) catapults and (b) ballistae ([greek: lithoboloi]). the former were smaller and were used with arrows for what is now called direct fire (i.e. at low angles of elevation); the latter were large siege engines discharging heavy bolts or stones at a high angle of elevation, like the modern howitzer. they were, of course, principally siege engines, but the smaller natures of catapult appear in field warfare from time to time, and eventually, during the early principate, they are found as part of the regulation equipment of infantry units. both were constructed on the same principle. [illustration] the essential parts of the catapult (see illustration) were the frame, the propelling gear, the trough (corresponding to the modern barrel) and the pedestal. the frame consisted of two horizontal beams forming top and bottom sills, and four strong upright bars mortised into them. the three open spaces or compartments, resembling narrow windows, between these four uprights carried the propelling and laying gear. the propelling gear occupied the two outer "windows." in each a thick skein of cord or sinews was fastened to the top and bottom sills and tightly twisted. two stiff wooden arms were inserted in the two skeins, and a specially strong bowstring joined the tips of these arms. in the middle compartment was the hinged fore-end of the trough, which was at right angles to the frame and at the back of it. the trough could be laid for elevation by a movable prop, the upper end of which was hinged to the trough, while the lower ran up and down a sort of trail fastened to the pedestal. the whole equipment was laid for "line" by turning the frame, and with it the trough, prop and trail by a pivot in the head of the pedestal. sliding up and down in the trough was a block, fitted with a trigger mechanism, through which passed the middle of the bowstring. the pedestal was a strong and solid upright resting upon, and strutted to, a framework on the ground; its upper end, as mentioned above, took the pivot of the frame and the head of the trail. on coming into action the machine was laid for direction and elevation. the block and with it the bowstring was next forced back against the resistance of the twisted skeins to the rear end of the trough, this being effected by a windlass attachment. the trigger being then pressed or struck with a hammer, the bowstring was released from the block, the stiff arms were violently brought back to the frame by the untwisting of the skeins, and the arrow was propelled through the centre "window" with great velocity. a small machine of the type described weighed about 85 lb., and sent a "three-span" (26-in.) arrow weighing 1/2 lb. at an effective man-killing velocity somewhat over 400 yds. the ballista was considerably larger and more expensive than this. in scipio's siege train, at the attack of new carthage (livy xxvi. 47. 5), the number of the ballistae was only one-sixth that of the catapults. in the ballista the rear end of the trough (which projected in front of the frame) always rested upon the ground, or rather was fixed to the framework of the pedestal--which was a heavy trestle construction--and the trough was thus restricted to the angle of elevation, giving the maximum range (45 deg.). even so the range was not appreciably greater than that of a catapult, and in the case of the largest ballistae (ninety-pounder) it was much less. these enormous engines, which, once in position, could not be laid on any fresh target, were used for propelling beams and stones rather than for shooting arrows, that is, more for the destruction of material than for man-killing effect. the skeins that supplied the motive force of all these engines were made of the sinews of animals, twisted raw hide, horsehair rope, and, in at least one celebrated case, of women's hair. in 146 b.c., the authorities of carthage having surrendered their engines to the romans in the vain hope of staying their advance, new ones were hurriedly constructed, and the women and virgins of the city cut off their hair to supply the needed skeins. the modern implement known as a "catapult" is formed by a forked stick, to the forks of which are attached the ends of a piece of elastic. to the middle of this elastic a pocket is fitted to contain a bullet or small stone. in use the forked stick is held in the left hand and the pocket drawn back with the right. aim is taken and, the pocket being released, the missile flies through the fork of the stick. though classed as a toy, this weapon can do considerable execution among birds, &c., when skilfully used. the name of "catapult" has also been given to a bowling machine which is used for cricket practice. cataract (from the lat. form _cataracta_ of the gr. [greek: katarraktes], a floodgate, or waterfall, properly something which rushes down), a downpour of water, a waterfall. the earliest use in english is of a floodgate or portcullis, and this survives in the name of a disease of the eye (see eye: _eye diseases_), in which the crystalline lens becomes opaque, and forms an apparent grating over the eye. the term is also used of a device to regulate the strokes in certain types of steam-engine. catargiu (or catargi), lascar (1823-1899), rumanian statesman, was born in moldavia in november 1823. he belonged to an ancient walachian family, one of whose members had been banished in the 17th century by prince matthew bassaraba, and had settled in moldavia. under prince gregory ghica (1849-1856), catargiu rose to be prefect of police at jassy. in 1857 he became a member of the _divan ad hoc_ of moldavia, a commission elected in accordance with the treaty of paris (1856) to vote on the proposed union of moldavia and walachia. his strongly conservative views, especially on agrarian reform, induced the conservatives to support him as a candidate for the throne in 1859. during the reign of prince cuza (1859-1866), catargiu was one of the opposition leaders, and received much assistance from his kinsman, barbu catargiu (b. 1807), a noted journalist and politician, who was assassinated at bucharest on the 20th of june 1862. on the accession of prince charles in may 1866, lascar catargiu became president of the council, or prime minister; but, finding himself unable to co-operate with his liberal colleagues, i.c. bratianu and c.a. rosetti, he resigned in july. after eight more ministerial changes, culminating in the anti-dynastic agitation of 1870-1871, catargiu formed, for the first time in rumanian history, a stable conservative cabinet, which lasted until 1876. his policy, which averted revolution and revived the popularity of the crown, was regarded as unpatriotic and reactionary by the liberals, who resumed office in 1876; and a proposal to impeach the whole catargiu cabinet was only withdrawn in 1878. catargiu remained in opposition until 1889, when he formed another cabinet, taking the portfolio of the interior; but this administration fell after seven months. in the florescu ministry of march 1891 he occupied the same position, and in december he again became president of the council, retaining office until 1895. during this period he was responsible for several useful reforms, chiefly financial and commercial. he died suddenly at bucharest on the 11th of april 1899. catarrh (from the gr. [greek: katarrein], to flow down), a term principally employed to describe a state of irritation of the mucous membrane of the respiratory passages, or what is called in popular language a "cold." it is the result of infection by a micro-organism in one or more of various predisposing conditions, damp, chill, fatigue, &c. the complaint usually begins as a nasal catarrh or _coryza_ (gr. [greek: korys], head), with a feeling of weight about the forehead and some degree of difficulty in breathing through the nose, increased on lying down. fits of sneezing accompanied with a profuse watery discharge from the nostrils and eyes soon follow, while the sense of smell and to some extent that of taste become considerably impaired. there is usually present some amount of sore throat and of bronchial irritation, causing hoarseness and cough. sometimes the vocal apparatus becomes so much inflamed (laryngeal catarrh) that temporary loss of voice results. there is always more or less feverishness and discomfort, and frequently an extreme sensitiveness to cold. after two or three days the symptoms begin to abate, the discharge from the nostrils and chest becoming thicker and of purulent character, and producing when dislodged considerable relief to the breathing. on the other hand the catarrh may assume a more severe aspect and pass into some form of pulmonary inflammation (see bronchitis) or influenza (q.v.). when the symptoms are first felt it is well to take a good purge, and to encourage free perspiration by a hot bath, some diaphoretic drug, as spirits of nitrous ether, being taken before retiring to bed. some of the older school of physicians still pin their faith to a dose of dover's powder. when the cold manifests itself by aches and pains in back and limbs, aspirin taken three or four times in the first twenty-four hours will often act like magic. locally a snuff made of menthol 1 part, ammonium chloride 3 parts and boracic acid 2 parts will relieve the discomfort of the nose. also, remembering the microbic origin of the disease, gargling and nasal syringing should be repeated at intervals. as soon as the attack shows signs of subsiding, a good tonic and, still better, a change of air are very helpful. the term catarrh is used in medical nomenclature in a wider sense to describe a state of irritation of any mucous surface in the body, which is accompanied with an abnormal discharge of its natural secretion, hence the terms gastric catarrh, intestinal catarrh, &c. see also respiratory system: _pathology_, and digestive organs, _pathology of_.