CARNESECCHI

carnesecchi, pietro (1508-1567), italian humanist, was the son of a florentine merchant, who under the patronage of the medici, and especially of giovanni de' medici as pope clement vii., rapidly rose to high office at the papal court. he came into touch with the new learning at the house of his maternal uncle, cardinal bernardo dovizzi, in rome. at the age of twenty-five he held several rich livings, had been notary and protonotary to the curia, and was first secretary to the pope, in which capacity he conducted the correspondence with the nuncios (among them pier paolo bergerio in germany) and a host of other duties. by his conduct at the conference with francis i. at marseilles he won the favour of catherine de' medici and other influential personages at the french court, who in later days befriended him. he made the acquaintance of the spanish reformer juan de valdes at rome, and got to know him as a theologian at naples, being especially drawn to him through the appreciation expressed by bernardino ochino, and through their mutual friendship with the lady julia gonzaga, whose spiritual adviser he became after the death of valdes. he became a leading spirit in the literary and religious circle that gathered round valdes in naples, and that aimed at effecting from within the spiritual reformation of the church. under valdes' influence he whole-heartedly accepted luther's doctrine of justification by faith, though he repudiated a policy of schism. when the movement of suppression began, carnesecchi was implicated. for a time he found shelter with his friends in paris, and from 1552 he was in venice leading the party of reform in that city. in 1557 he was cited (for the second time) before the tribunal in rome, but refused to appear. the death of paul iv. and the accession of pius iv. in 1559 made his position easier, and he came to live in rome. with the accession of pius v. (michael ghislieri) in 1565 the inquisition renewed its activities with fiercer zeal than ever. carnesecchi was in venice when the news reached him, and betook himself to florence, where, thinking himself safe, he was betrayed by cosimo, the duke, who wished to curry favour with the pope. from july 1566 he lay in prison over a year. on the 21st of september 1567 sentence of degradation and death was passed on him and sixteen others, ambassadors from florence vainly kneeling to the pope for some mitigation, and on the 1st of october he was publicly beheaded and then burned. carniola (ger. _krain_), a duchy and crown-land of austria, bounded n. by carinthia, n.e. by styria, s.e. and s. by croatia, and w. by gorz and gradisca, trieste and istria. it has an area of 3856 sq. m. carniola is for the most part a mountainous region, occupied in the n. by the alps, and in the s. by the karst (q.v.) or carso mountains. it is traversed by the julian alps, the karawankas and the steiner alps, which belong all to the southern zone of the eastern alps. the highest point in the julian alps is formed by the three sugar-loaf peaks of the triglav or terglou (9394 ft.), which offers one of the finest views in the whole of the alps, and which bears on its northern declivity the only glacier in the province. the triglav is the dividing range between the alps and the karst mountains, and its huge mass also forms the barrier between three races: the german, the slavonic and the italian. other high peaks are the mangart (8784 ft.) and the jaluz (8708 ft.). the karawankas, which form the boundary between carinthia and carniola, have as their highest peak the stou or stuhlberg (7344 ft.), and are traversed by the loibl pass (4492 ft.). they are continued by the steiner or santhaler alps, which have as their highest peak the grintouz or grintovc (8393 ft.). this peak is situated on the threefold boundary of carinthia, carniola and styria, and affords a magnificent view of the whole alpine neighbouring region. the southern part of carniola is occupied by the following divisions of the northern ramifications of the karst mountains: the birnbaumer wald with the highest peak, the nanos (4275 ft.), and the krainer schneeberg (5890 ft.); the hornwald with the highest peak, the hornbuchl (3608 ft.), and the uskokengebirge (3874 ft.). the portion of carniola belonging to the karst region presents a great number of caves, subterranean streams, funnels and similar phenomena. amongst the best-known are the grottos of adelsberg, the larger ones of planina and the kreuzberghohle near laas. with the exception of the idria and the wippach, which as tributaries of the isonzo belong to the basin of the adriatic, carniola belongs to the watershed of the save. the save or sau rises within the duchy, and is formed by the junction at radmannsdorf of its two head-streams the wurzener save and the wocheiner save. its principal affluents are the kanker and the steiner feistritz on the left, and the zeyer or sora, the laibach and the gurk on the right. the most remarkable of these rivers is the laibach, which rises in the karst region under the name of poik, takes afterwards a subterranean course and traverses the adelsberg grotto, and appears again on the surface near planina under the name of unz. shortly after this it takes for the second time a subterranean course, to appear finally on the surface near oberlaibach. the small torrent of rothwein, which flows into the wurzener save, forms near veldes the splendid series of cascades known as the rothwein fall. amongst the principal lakes are the wochein, the weissenfels, the veldes, and the seven small lakes of the triglav; while in the karst region lies the famous periodical lake of zirknitz, known to the romans as _lacus lugens_ or _lugea palus._ the climate is rather severe, and the southern part is exposed to the cold north-eastern wind, known as the bora. the mean annual temperature at laibach is 48.4 deg. f., and the rainfall amounts to 72 ins. of the total area only 14.8% is under cultivation, and the crops do not suffice for the needs of the province; forests occupy 44.4%, 17.2% are meadows, 15.7% are pastures, and 1.17% of the soil is covered by vineyards. large quantities of flax are grown, while the timber trade is of considerable importance. fish and game are plentiful, and the silkworm is bred in the warmer districts. the principal mining product is mercury, extracted at idria, while iron and copper ore, zinc and coal are also found. the industry is not well developed, but the weaving of linen and lace is pursued as a household industry. carniola had in 1900 a population of 508,348, which corresponds to 132 inhabitants per sq. m. nearly 95% were slovenes and 5% germans, while 99% of the population belonged to the roman catholic church. the local diet, of which the bishop of laibach is a member _ex officio_, is composed of thirty-seven members, and carniola sends eleven deputies to the reichsrat at vienna. for administrative purposes the province is divided into eleven districts and one autonomous municipality, laibach (pop. 36,547), the capital. other important places are oberlaibach (5882), idria (5772), gurkfeld (5294), zirknitz (5266), adelsberg (3636), neumarktl (2626), krainburg (2484) and gottschee (2421). carniola derives its modern name from the slavonic word _krajina_ (frontier). during the roman empire it formed part of noricum and pannonia. the slavonic population settled here during the end of the 6th and the beginning of the 7th century. conquered by charlemagne, the most of the district was bestowed on the duke of friuli; but in the 10th century the title of margrave of carniola began to be borne by a family resident in the castle of kieselberg near krainburg. various parts of the present territory were, however, held by other lords, such as the duke of carinthia and the bishop of freising. towards the close of the 14th century all the separate portions had come by inheritance or bequest into the hands of rudolph iv. of austria, who took the title of duke of carniola; and since then the duchy has remained a part of the austrian possessions, except during the short period from 1809 to 1813, when it was incorporated with the french illyrian provinces. in 1849 it became a separate crown-land. see dimitz, _geschichte krains von der altesten zeit his 1813_ (4 vols., laibach, 1874-1876). carnival (med. lat. _carnelevarium_, from _caro, carnis_, flesh, and _levare_, to lighten or put aside; the derivation from _valere_, to say farewell, is unsupported), the last three days preceding lent, which in roman catholic countries are given up to feasting and merry-making. anciently the carnival was held to begin on twelfth night (6th january) and last till midnight of shrove tuesday. there is little doubt that this period of licence represents a compromise which the church always inclined to make with the pagan festivals and that the carnival really represents the roman saturnalia. rome has ever been the headquarters of carnival, and though some popes, notably clement ix. and xi. and benedict xiii., made efforts to stem the tide of bacchanalian revelry, many of the popes were great patrons and promoters of carnival keeping. paul ii. was notable in this respect. in his time the jews of rome were compelled to pay yearly a sum of 1130 golden florins (the thirty being added as a special memorial of judas and the thirty pieces of silver), which was expended on the carnival. a decree of paul ii., minutely providing for the diversions, orders that four rings of silver gilt should be provided, two in the piazza navona and two at the monte testaccio--one at each place for the burghers and the other for the retainers of the nobles to practise riding at the ring. the pope also orders a great variety of races, the expenses of which are to be paid from the papal exchequer--one to be run by the jews, another for christian children, another for christian young men, another for sexagenarians, a fifth for asses, and a sixth for buffaloes. under julius iii. we have long accounts of bull-hunts--or rather bull-baits--in the forum, with gorgeous descriptions of the magnificence of the dresses, and enormous suppers in the palace of the conservatori in the capitol, where seven cardinals, together with the duke orazio farnese, supped at one table, and all the ladies by themselves at another. after the supper the whole party went into the courtyard of the palace, which was turned into the semblance of a theatre, "to see a most charming comedy which was admirably played, and lasted so long that it was not over till ten o'clock!" even the austere and rigid paul iv. (_ob_. 1559) used to keep carnival by inviting all the sacred college to dine with him. sixtus v., who was elected in 1585, set himself to the keeping of carnival after a different fashion. determined to repress the lawlessness and crime incident to the period, he set up gibbets in conspicuous places, as well as whipping-posts, the former as a hint to robbers and cut-throats, the latter in store for minor offenders. we find, further, from the provisions made at the time, that sixtus reformed the evil custom of throwing dirt and dust and flour at passengers, permitting only flowers or sweetmeats to be thrown. the later popes for the most part restricted the public festivities of the carnival to the last six or seven days immediately preceding ash wednesday. the municipal authorities of the city, on whom the regulation of such matters now depends, allow ten days. the carnival sports at rome anciently consisted of three divisions: (1) the races in the corso (formerly called the via lata, and taking its present name from them), which appear to have been from time immemorial a part of the festivity; (2) the spectacular pageant of the agona; (3) that of the testaccio. of other italian cities, venice used in old times to be the principal home, after rome, of carnival. to-day turin, milan, florence, naples, all put forth competing programmes. in old times florence was conspicuous for the licentiousness of its carnival; and the _canti carnascialeschi_, or carnival songs, of lorenzo de' medici show to what extent the licence was carried. the carnival in spain lasts four days, including ash wednesday. in france the merry-making is restricted almost entirely to shrove tuesday, or _mardi gras_. in russia, where no ash wednesday is observed, carnival gaieties last a week from sunday to sunday.