CAPE TOWN

cape town, the capital of the cape province, south africa, in 33 deg. 56' s., 18 deg. 28' e. it is at the north-west extremity of the cape peninsula on the south shore of table bay, is 6181 m. by sea from london and 957 by rail south-west of johannesburg. few cities are more magnificently situated. behind the bay the massive wall of table mountain, 2 m. in length, rises to a height of over 3500 ft., while on the east and west projecting mountains enclose the plain in which the city lies. the mountain to the east, 3300 ft. high, which projects but slightly seawards, is the devil's peak, that to the west the lion's head (over 2000 ft. high), with a lesser height in front called the lion's rump or signal hill. the city, at first confined to the land at the head of the bay, has extended all round the shores of the bay and to the lower spurs of table mountain. the purely dutch aspect which cape town preserved until the middle of the 19th century has disappeared. nearly all the stucco-fronted brick houses, with flat roofs and cornices and wide spreading _stoeps_, of the early dutch settlers have been replaced by shops, warehouses and offices in styles common to english towns. of the many fine public buildings which adorn the city scarcely any date before 1860. the mixture of races among the inhabitants, especially the presence of numerous malays, who on all festive occasions appear in gorgeous raiment, gives additional animation and colour to the street scenes. the mosques with their cupolas and minarets, and houses built in eastern fashion contrast curiously with the renaissance style of most of the modern buildings, the medieval aspect of the castle and the quaint appearance of the dutch houses still standing. _chief public buildings_.--the castle stands near the shore at the head of the bay. begun in 1666 its usefulness as a fortress has long ceased, but it serves to link the city to its past. west of the castle is a large oblong space, the parade ground. a little farther west, at the foot of the central jetty is a statue of van riebeek, the first governor of the cape. in a line with the jetty is adderley street, and its continuation government avenue. adderley street and the avenue make one straight road a mile long, and at its end are "the gardens," as the suburbs built on the rising ground leading to table mountain are called. the avenue itself is fully half a mile long and is lined on either side with fine oak trees. in adderley street are the customs house and railway station, the standard bank, the general post and telegraph offices, with a tower 120 ft. high, and the dutch reformed church. the church dates from 1699 and is the oldest church in south africa. of the original building only the clock tower (sent from holland in 1727) remains. government avenue contains, on the east side, the houses of parliament, government house, a modernized dutch building, and the jewish synagogue; on the west side are the anglican cathedral and grammar schools, the public library, botanic gardens, the museum and south african college. many of these buildings are of considerable architectural merit, the material chiefly used in their construction being granite from the paarl and red brick. the botanic gardens cover 14 acres, contain over 8000 varieties of trees and plants, and afford a magnificent view of table mountain and its companion heights. in the gardens, in front of the library is a statue of sir george grey, governor of the cape from 1854 to 1861. the most valuable portion of the library is the 5000 volumes presented by sir george grey. in queen victoria street, which runs along the west side of the gardens, are the cape university buildings (begun in 1906), the law courts, city club and huguenot memorial hall. the anglican cathedral, begun in 1901 to replace an unpretentious building on the same site, is dedicated to st george. it lies between the library and st george's street, in which are the chief newspaper offices, and premises of the wholesale merchants. west of st george's street is greenmarket square, the centre of the town during the dutch period. from the balcony of the town house, which overlooks the square, proclamations were read to the burghers, summoned to the spot by the ringing of the bell in the small-domed tower. still farther west, in riebeek square, is the old slave market, now used as a church and school for coloured people. facing the north side of the parade ground are the handsome municipal buildings, completed in 1906. the most conspicuous feature is the clock tower and belfry, 200 ft. high. the hall is 130 ft. by 62, and 55 ft. high. opposite the main entrance is a statue of edward vii. by william goscombe john, unveiled in 1905. the opera house occupies the north-west corner of the parade ground. plein street, which leads south from the parade ground, is noted for its cheap shops, largely patronized on saturday nights by the coloured inhabitants. in sir lowry road, the chief eastern thoroughfare, is the large vegetable and fruit market. immediately west of the harbour are the convict station and somerset hospital. they are built at the town end of greenpoint common, the open space at the foot of signal hill. cape town is provided with an excellent water supply and an efficient drainage system. _the suburbs_.--the suburbs of cape town, for natural beauty of position, are among the finest in the world. on the west they extend about 3 m., by green point to sea point, between the sea and the foot of the lion's rump; on the east they run round the foot of the devil's peak, by woodstock, mowbray, rondebosch, newlands, claremont, &c., to wynberg, a distance of 7 m. though these are managed by various municipalities, there is practically no break in the buildings for the whole distance. all the parts are connected by the suburban railway service, and by an electric tramway system. a tramway also runs from the town over the kloof, or pass between table mountain and the lion's head, to camp's bay, on the west coast south of sea point, to which place it is continued, the tramway thus completely circling the lion's head and signal hill. of the suburbs mentioned, green point and sea point are seaside resorts, woodstock being both a business and residential quarter. woodstock covers the ground on which the british, in 1806, defeated the dutch, and contains the house in which the articles of capitulation were signed. another seaside suburb is milnerton on the north-east shores of table bay at the mouth of the diep river. near maitland, and 3 m. from the city, is the cape town observatory, built in 1820 and maintained by the british government. rondebosch, 5 m. from the city, contains some of the finest of the dutch mansions in south africa. less than a mile from the station is groote schuur, a typical specimen of the country houses built by the dutch settlers in the 17th century. the house was the property of cecil rhodes, and was bequeathed by him for the use of the prime minister of federated south africa. the grounds of the estate extend up the slopes of table mountain. at newlands is bishop's court, the home of the archbishop of cape town. more distant suburbs to the south-east are constantia, with a famous dutch farm-house and wine farm, and muizenberg and kalk bay, the two last villages on the shore of false bay. at muizenberg cecil rhodes died, 1902. facing the atlantic is hout's bay, 10 m. south-south-west of wynberg. most of the suburbs and the city itself are exposed to the south-east winds which, passing over the flats which join the cape peninsula to the mainland, reach the city sand-laden. from its bracing qualities this wind, which blows in the summer, is known as the "cape doctor." during its prevalence table mountain is covered by a dense whitish-grey cloud, overlapping its side like a tablecloth. _the harbour._--table bay, 20 m. wide at its entrance, is fully exposed to north and north-west gales. the harbour works, begun in 1860, afford sheltered accommodation for a large number of vessels. from the west end of the bay a breakwater extends north-east for some 4000 ft. east of the breakwater and parallel to it for 2700 ft. is the south pier. from breakwater and pier arms project laterally. in the area enclosed are the victoria basin, covering 64 acres, the alfred basin of 8-1/2 acres, a graving dock 529 ft. long and a patent slip for vessels up to 1500 tons. there is good anchorage outside the victoria basin under the lee of the breakwater, and since 1904 the foreshore east of the south pier has been reclaimed and additional wharfage provided. altogether there are 2-1/2 m. of quay walls, the wharfs being provided with electrical cranage. cargo can be transferred direct from the ship into railway trucks. vessels of the deepest draught can enter into the victoria basin, the depth of water at low tide ranging from 24 to 36 ft. _trade and communication._--the port has a practical monopoly of the passenger traffic between the cape and england. several lines of steamers--chiefly british and german--maintain regular communication with europe, the british mail boats taking sixteen days on the journey. by its railway connexions cape town affords the quickest means of reaching, from western europe, every other town in south africa. in the import trade cape town is closely rivalled by port elizabeth, but its export trade, which includes diamonds and bar gold, is fully 70% of that of the entire colony. in 1898, the year before the beginning of the anglo-boer war, the volume of trade was:--imports l5,128,292, exports l15,881,952. in 1904, two years after the conclusion of the war the figures were:--imports l9,070,757; exports l17,471,760. in 1907 during a period of severe and prolonged trade depression the imports had fallen to l5,263,930, but the exports owing entirely to the increased output of gold from the rand mines had increased to l37,994,658; gold and diamonds represented over l37,000,000 of this total. the tonnage of ships entering the harbour in 1887 was 801,033. in 1904 it had risen to 4,846,012 and in 1907 was 4,671,146. the trade of the port in tons was 1,276,350 in 1899 and 1,413,471 in 1904. in 1907 it had fallen to 658,721. _defence._--cape town, being in the event of the closing of the suez canal on the main route of ships from europe to the east, is of considerable strategic importance. it is defended by several batteries armed with modern heavy guns. it is garrisoned by imperial and local troops, and is connected by railway with the naval station at simon's town on the east of the cape peninsula. _population._--the cape electoral division, which includes cape town, had in 1865 a population of 50,064, in 1875 57,319, in 1891 97,238, and in 1904 213,167, of whom 120,475 were whites. cape town itself had a population in 1875 of 33,000, in 1891 of 51,251 and in 1904 of 77,668. inclusive of the nearer suburbs the population was 78,866 in 1891 and 170,083 in 1904. of the inhabitants of the city proper 44,203 were white (1904). of the coloured inhabitants 6561 were malays; the remainder being chiefly of mixed blood. the most populous suburbs in 1904 were woodstock with 28,990 inhabitants, and wynberg with 18,477. _history and local government_.--cape town was founded in 1652 by settlers sent from holland by the netherlands east india co., under jan van riebeek. it came definitely into the possession of great britain in 1806. its political history is indistinguishable from that of cape colony (q.v.). the town was granted municipal institutions in 1836. (among the councillors returned at the election of 1904 was dr abdurrahman, a mahommedan and a graduate of edinburgh, this being, it is believed, the first instance of the election of a man of colour to any european representative body in south africa.) the municipality owns the water and lighting services. the municipal rating value was, in 1880 l2,054,204, in 1901 l9,475,260, in 1908 (when the rate levied was 3d. in the l) l14,129,439. the total rateable value of the suburbs, not included in the above figures, is over l8,000,000. rates are based on capital, not annual, value. the control of the port is vested in the harbour and railway board of the union. cape town is the seat of the legislature of the union of south africa, of the provincial government, of the provincial division of the supreme court of south africa, and of the cape university; also of an archbishop of the anglican and a bishop of the roman catholic churches. cape verde islands (_ilhas do caba verde_), an archipelago belonging to portugal; off the west african coast, between 17 deg. 13' and 14 deg. 47' n. and 22 deg. 40' and 25 deg. 22' w. pop. (1905) about 138,620; area, 1475 sq. m. the archipelago consists of ten islands:--santo antao (commonly miswritten st antonio), sao vicente, santa luzia, sao nicolao, sal, boa vista, maio, sao thiago (the st jago of the english), fogo, and brava, besides four uninhabited islets. it forms a sort of broken crescent, with the concavity towards the west. the last four islands constitute the leeward (sotavento) group and the other six the windward (barlavento). the distance between the coast of africa and the nearest island (boa vista) is about 300 m. the islands derive their name, frequently but erroneously written "cape verd," or "cape de verd" islands, from the african promontory off which they lie, known as cape verde, or the green cape. the entire archipelago is of volcanic origin, and on the island of fogo there is an active volcano. no serious eruption has taken place since 1680, and the craters from which the streams of basalt issued have lost their outline. [illustration: cape verde is. map.] _climate_.--the atmosphere of the islands is generally hazy, especially in the direction of africa. with occasional exceptions during summer and autumn, the north-east trade is the prevailing wind, blowing most strongly from november to may. the rainy season is during august, september and october, when there is thunder and a light variable wind from south-east or south-west. the harmattan, a very dry east wind from the african continent, occasionally makes itself felt. the heat of summer is high, the thermometer ranging from 80 deg. to 90 deg. fahr. near the sea. the unhealthy season is the period during and following the rains, when vegetation springs up with surprising rapidity, and there is much stagnant water, poisoning the air on the lower grounds. remittent fevers are then common. the people of all the islands are also subject in may to an endemic of a bilious nature called locally _levadias_, but the cases rarely assume a dangerous form, and recovery is usually attained in three or four days without medical aid. on some of the islands rain has occasionally not fallen for three years. the immediate consequence is a failure of the crops, and this is followed by the death of great numbers from starvation, or the epidemics which usually break out afterwards. _flora_.--owing largely to the widespread destruction of timber for fuel, and to the frequency of drought, the flora of the islands is poor when compared with that of the canaries, the azores or madeira. it is markedly tropical in character; and although some seventy wild-flowers, grasses, ferns, &c., are peculiar to the archipelago, the majority of plants are those found on the neighbouring african littoral. systematic afforestation has not been attempted, but the portuguese have introduced a few trees, such as the baobab, eucalyptus and dragon-tree, besides many plants of economic value. coffee-growing, an industry dating from 1790, is the chief resource of the people of santo antao, fogo and sao thiago; maize, millet, sugar-cane, manioc, excellent oranges, pumpkins, sweet potatoes, and, to a less extent, tobacco and cotton are produced. on most of the islands coco-nut and date palms, tamarinds and bananas may be seen; orchil is gathered; and indigo and castor-oil are produced. of considerable importance is the physic-nut (_jatropha curcas_), which is exported. _fauna_.--quails are found in all the islands; rabbits in boa vista, sao thiago and fogo; wild boars in sao thiago. both black and grey rats are common. goats, horses and asses are reared, and goatskins are exported. the neighbouring sea abounds with fish, and coral fisheries are carried on by a colony of neapolitans in sao thiago. turtles come from the african coast to lay their eggs on the sandy shores. the ilheu branco, or white islet, between sao nicolao and santa luzia, is remarkable as containing a variety of puffin unknown elsewhere, and a species of large lizard (_macroscinctus coctei_) which feeds on plants. _inhabitants_.--the first settlers on the islands imported negro slaves from the african coast. slavery continued in full force until 1854, when the portuguese government freed the public slaves, and ameliorated the conditions of private ownership. in 1857 arrangements were made for the gradual abolition of slavery, and by 1876 the last slave had been liberated. the transportation of convicts from portugal, a much-dreaded punishment, was continued until the closing years of the 19th century. it was the coexistence of these two forms of servitude, even more than the climate, which prevented any large influx of portuguese colonists. hence the blacks and mulattoes far outnumber the white inhabitants. they are, as a rule, taller than the portuguese, and are of fine physique, with regular features but woolly hair. slavery and the enervating climate have left their mark on the habits of the people, whose indolence and fatalism are perhaps their most obvious qualities. their language is a bastard portuguese, known as the _lingua creoula_. their religion is roman catholicism, combined with a number of pagan beliefs and rites, which are fostered by the _curandeiros_ or medicine men. these superstitions tend to disappear gradually before the advance of education, which has progressed considerably since 1867, when the first school, a lyceum, was opened in ribeira brava, the capital of sao nicolao. on all the inhabited islands, except santa luzia, there are churches and primary schools, conducted by the government or the priests. the children of the wealthier classes are sent to lisbon for their education. _government_.--the archipelago forms one of the foreign provinces of portugal, and is under the command of a governor-in-chief appointed by the crown. there are two principal judges, one for the windward and another for the leeward group, the former with his residence at sao nicolao, and the latter at praia; and each island has a military commandant, a few soldiers, and a number of salaried officials, such as police, magistrates and custom-house directors. there is also an ecclesiastical establishment, with a bishop, dean and canons. _industries_.--the principal industries, apart from agriculture, are the manufacture of sugar, spirits, salt, cottons and straw hats and fish-curing. the average yearly value of the exports is about l60,000; that of the imports (including l200,000 for coal), about l350,000. the most important of the exports are coffee, physic-nuts, millet, sugar, spirits, salt, live animals, skins and fish. this trade is principally carried on with lisbon and the portuguese possessions on the west coast of africa, and with passing vessels. the imports consist principally of coal, textiles, food-stuffs, wine, metals, tobacco, machinery, pottery and vegetables. over 3000 vessels, with a total tonnage exceeding 3,500,000, annually enter the ports of the archipelago; the majority call at mindello, on sao vicente, for coal, and do not receive or discharge any large quantities of cargo. _santo antao_ (pop. 25,000), at the extreme north-west of the archipelago, has an area of 265 sq. m. its surface is very rugged and mountainous, abounding in volcanic craters, of which the chief is the topoda coroa (7300 ft.), also known as the sugar-loaf. mineral springs exist in many places. the island is the most picturesque, the healthiest, and, on its north-western slope, the best watered and most fertile of the archipelago. the south-eastern slope, shut out by lofty mountains from the fertilizing moisture of the trade-winds, has an entirely different appearance, black rocks, white pumice and red clay being its most characteristic features. santo antao produces large quantities of excellent coffee, besides sugar and fruit. it has several small ports, of which the chief are the sheltered and spacious tarrafal bay, on the south-west coast, and the more frequented ponta do sol, on the north-east, 8 m. from the capital, ribeira grande, a town of 4500 inhabitants. cinchona is cultivated in the neighbourhood. in 1780 the slaves on santo antao were declared free, but this decree was not carried out. about the same time many white settlers, chiefly from the canaries, entered the island, and introduced the cultivation of wheat. _sao vicente_, or _st vincent_ (8000), lies near santo antao, on the south-east, and has an area of 75 sq. m. its highest point is monte verde (2400 ft.). the whole island is as arid and sterile as the south-eastern half of santo antao, and for the same reason. it was practically uninhabited until 1795; in 1829 its population numbered about 100. its harbour, an extinct crater on the north coast, with an entrance eroded by the sea, affords complete shelter from every wind. an english speculator founded a coaling station here in 1851, and the town of mindello, also known as porto grande or st vincent, grew up rapidly, and became the commercial centre of the archipelago. most of the business is in english hands, and nine-tenths of the inhabitants understand english. foodstuffs, wood and water are imported from santo antao, and the water is stored in a large reservoir at mindello. sao vicente has a station for the submarine cable from lisbon to pernambuco in brazil. _santa luzia_, about 5 m. south-east, has an area of 18 sq. m., and forms a single estate, occupied only by the servants or the family of the proprietor. its highest point is 885 ft. above sea-level. on the south-west it has a good harbour, visited by whaling and fishing boats. much orchil was formerly gathered, and there is good pasturage for the numerous herds of cattle. a little to the south are the uninhabited islets of branco and razo. _sao nicolao_, or _nicolau_ (12,000), a long, narrow, crescent-shaped island with an area of 126 sq. m., lies farther east, near the middle of the archipelago. its climate is not very healthy. maize, kidney-beans, manioc, sugar-cane and vines are cultivated; and in ordinary years grain is exported to the other islands. the interior is mountainous, and culminates in two peaks which can be seen for many leagues; one has the shape of a sugar-loaf, and is near the middle of the island; the other, monte gordo, is near the west end, and has a height of 4280 ft. all the other islands of the group can be seen from sao nicolao in clear weather. vessels frequently enter preguica, or freshwater bay, near the south-east extremity of the island, for water and fresh provisions; and the custom-house is here. the island was one of the first colonized; in 1774 its inhabitants numbered 13,500, but famine subsequently caused a great decrease. the first capital, lapa, at the end of a promontory on the south, was abandoned during the period of spanish ascendancy over portugal (1580-1640) in favour of ribeira brava (4000), on the north coast, a town which now has a considerable trade. _sal_ (750), in the north-east of the archipelago, has an area of 75 sq. m. it was originally named _lana_, or _lhana_ ("plain"), from the flatness of the greater part of its surface. it derives its modern name from a natural salt-spring, but most of the salt produced here is now obtained from artificial salt-pans. towards the close of the 17th century it was inhabited only by a few shepherds, and by slaves employed in the salt-works. in 1705 it was entirely abandoned, owing to drought and consequent famine; and only in 1808 was the manufacture of salt resumed. a railway, the first built in portuguese territory, was opened in 1835. the hostile brazilian tariffs of 1889 for a time nearly destroyed the salt trade. whales, turtles and fish are abundant, and dairy-farming is a prosperous industry. there are many small harbours, which render every part of the island easily accessible. _boa vista_ (2600), the most easterly island of the archipelago, has an area of 235 sq. m. it was named sao christovao by its discoverers in the 15th century. its modern name, meaning "fair view," is singularly inappropriate, for with the exception of a few coco-nut trees there is no wood, and in the dry season the island seems nothing but an arid waste. the little vegetation that then exists is in the bottom of ravines, where corn, beans and cotton are cultivated. the springs of good water are few. the coast is indented by numerous shallow bays, the largest of which is the harbour of the capital, porto sal-rei, on the western side (pop. about 1000). a chain of heights, flanked by inferior ranges, traverses the middle of boa vista, culminating in monte gallego (1250 ft.), towards the east. in the north-western angle of the island there is a low tract of loose sand, which is inundated with water during the rainy season; and here are some extensive salt-pans, where the sea-water is evaporated by the heat of the sun. salt and orchil are exported. a good deal of fish is taken on the coast and supplies the impoverished islanders with much of their food. _maio_ (1000) has an area of 70 sq. m., and resembles sal and boa vista in climate and configuration, although it belongs to the sotavento group. its best harbour is that of nossa senhora da luz, on the south-west coast, and is commonly known as porto inglez or english road, from the fact that it was occupied until the end of the 18th century by the british, who based their claim on the marriage-treaty between charles ii. and catherine of braganza (1662). the island is a barren, treeless waste, surrounded by rocks. its inhabitants, who live chiefly by the manufacture of salt, by cattle-farming and by fishing, are compelled to import most of their provisions from sao thiago, with which, for purposes of local administration, maio is included. _sao thiago_ (63,000) is the most populous and the largest of the cape verde islands, having an area of 350 sq. m. it is also one of the most unhealthy, except among the mountains over 2000 ft. high. the interior is a mass of volcanic heights, formed of basalt covered with chalk and clay, and culminating in the central pico da antonia (4500 ft.), a sharply pointed cone. there are numerous ravines, furrowed by perennial streams, and in these ravines are grown large quantities of coffee, oranges, sugar-cane and physic-nuts, besides a variety of tropical fruits and cereals. spirits are distilled from sugar-cane, and coarse sugar is manufactured. the first capital of the islands was ribeira grande, to-day called cidade velha or the old city, a picturesque town with a cathedral and ruined fort. it was built in the 15th century on the south coast, was made an episcopal see in 1532, and became capital of the archipelago in 1592. in 1712 it was sacked by a french force, but despite its poverty and unhealthy situation it continued to be the capital until 1770, when its place was taken by praia on the south-east. praia (often written praya) has a fine harbour, a population of 21,000 and a considerable trade. it contains the palace of the governor-general, a small natural history museum, a meteorological observatory and an important station for the cables between south america, europe and west africa. it occupies a basalt plateau, overlooking the bay (porto da praia), and has an attractive appearance, with its numerous coco-nut trees and the peak of antonia rising in the background above successive steps of tableland. its unhealthiness has been mitigated by the partial drainage of a marsh lying to the east. _fogo_ (17,600) is a mass of volcanic rock, almost circular in shape and measuring about 190 sq. m. in the centre a still active volcano, the pico do cano, rises to a height of about 10,000 ft. its crater, which stands within an older crater, measures 3 m. in circumference and is visible at sea for nearly 100 m. it emits smoke and ashes at intervals; and in 1680, 1785, 1799, 1816, 1846, 1852 and 1857 it was in eruption. after the first and most serious of these outbreaks, the island, which had previously been called sao felippe, was renamed fogo, _i.e._ "fire." the ascent of the mountain was first made in 1819 by two british naval officers, named vidal and mudge. the island is divided, like santo antao, into a fertile and a sterile zone. its northern half produces fine coffee, beans, maize and sugar-cane; the southern half is little better than a desert, with oases of cultivated land near its few springs. sao felippe or nossa senhora da luz (3000), on the west coast, is the capital. the islanders claim to be the aristocracy of the archipelago, and trace their descent from the original portuguese settlers. the majority, however, are negroes or mulattoes. drought and famine, followed by severe epidemics, have been especially frequent here, notably in the years 1887-1889. _brava_ (9013), the most southerly of the islands, has an area of 23 sq. m. though mountainous, and in some parts sterile, it is very closely cultivated, and, unlike the other islands, is divided into a multitude of small holdings. the desire to own land is almost universal, and as the population numbers upwards of 380 per sq. m., and the system of tenure gives rise to many disputes, the peasantry are almost incessantly engaged in litigation. the women, who are locally celebrated for their beauty, far outnumber the men, who emigrate at an early age to america. these emigrants usually return richer and better educated than the peasantry of the neighbouring islands. to the north of brava lie a group of reefs among which two islets (ilheus seccos or ilheus do rombo) are conspicuous. these are usually known as the ilheu de dentro (inner islet) and the ilheu de fora (outer islet). the first is used as a shelter for whaling and fishing vessels, and as pasturage for cattle; the second has supplied much guano for export. _history_.--the earliest known discovery of the islands was made in 1456 by the venetian captain alvise cadamosto (q.v.), who had entered the service of prince henry the navigator. the archipelago was granted by king alphonso v. of portugal to his brother, prince ferdinand, whose agents completed the work of discovery. ferdinand was an absolute monarch, exercising a commercial monopoly. in 1461 he sent an expedition to recruit slaves on the coast of guinea and thus to people the islands, which were almost certainly uninhabited at the time. on his death in 1470 his privileges reverted to the crown, and were bestowed by john ii. on prince emanuel, by whose accession to the throne in 1495 the archipelago finally became part of the royal dominions. its population and importance rapidly increased; its first bishop was consecrated in 1532, its first governor-general appointed about the end of the century. it was enriched by the frequent visits of portuguese fleets, on their return to europe laden with treasure from the east, and by the presence of immigrants from madeira, who introduced better agricultural methods and several new industries, such as dyeing and distillation of spirits. the failure to maintain an equal rate of progress in the 18th and 19th centuries was due partly to drought, famine and disease--in particular, to the famines of 1730-1733 and 1831-1833--and partly to gross misgovernment by the portuguese officials. the best general account of the islands is given in vols. xxiii. and xxvii. of the _boletim_ of the lisbon geographical society (1905 and 1908), and in _madeira, cabo verde, e guine_, by j.a. martins (lisbon, 1891). official statistics are published in lisbon at irregular intervals. see also _uber die capverden_ (leipzig, 1884) and _die vulcane der capverden_ (graz, 1882), both by c. dolter. a useful map, entitled _ocean atlantico norte, archipelago do cabo verde_, was issued in 1900 by the _commissao de cartographia_, lisbon.