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    "chunk_id": "1911:cadoudal:bfff0705812f",
    "title": "CADOUDAL",
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    "verified_text": "cadoudal, georges (1771-1804), leader of the _chouans_ during the french revolution, was born in 1771 near auray. he had received a fair education, and when the revolution broke out he remained true to his royalist and catholic teaching. from 1793 he organized a rebellion in the morbihan against the revolutionary government. it was quickly suppressed and he thereupon joined the army of the revolted vendeans, taking part in the battles of le mans and of savenay in december 1793. returning to morbihan, he was arrested, and imprisoned at brest. he succeeded, however, in escaping, and began again the struggle against the revolution. in spite of the defeat of his party, and of the fact that he was forced several times to take refuge in england, cadoudal did not cease both to wage war and to conspire in favour of the royalist pretenders. he refused to come to any understanding with the government, although offers were made to him by bonaparte, who admired his skill and his obstinate energy. from 1800 it was impossible for cadoudal to continue to wage open war, so he took altogether to plotting. he was indirectly concerned in the attempt made by saint regent in the rue sainte nicaise on the life of the first consul, in december 1800, and fled to england again. in 1803 he returned to france to undertake a new attempt against bonaparte. though watched for by the police, he succeeded in eluding them for six months, but was at length arrested. found guilty and condemned to death, he refused to ask for pardon and was executed in paris on the 10th of june 1804, along with eleven of his companions. he is often called simply georges. see _proces de georges, moreau et pichegru_ (paris, 1804, 8 vols. 8vo); the _memoires_ of bourrienne, of hyde de neuville and of rohu; lenotre, _tournebut_ (on the arrest); lejean, _biographie bretonne_; and the bibliography to the article vendee. cadre (fr. for a frame, from the lat. _quadrum_, a square), a framework or skeleton, particularly the permanent establishment of a military corps, regiment, &c. which can be expanded on emergency. caduceus (the lat. adaptation of the doric gr. [greek: karukeion], attic [greek: kerukeion], a herald's wand), the staff used by the messengers of the gods, and especially by hermes as conductor of the souls of the dead to the world below. the caduceus of hermes, which was given him by apollo in exchange for the lyre, was a magic wand which exercised influence over the living and the dead, bestowed wealth and prosperity and turned everything it touched into gold. in its oldest form it was a rod ending in two prongs twined into a knot (probably an olive branch with two shoots, adorned with ribbons or garlands), for which, later, two serpents, with heads meeting at the top, were substituted. the mythologists explained this by the story of hermes finding two serpents thus knotted together while fighting; he separated them with his wand, which, crowned by the serpents, became the symbol of the settlement of quarrels (thucydides i. 53; macrobius, _sat._ i. 19; hyginus, _poet. astron._ ii. 7). a pair of wings was sometimes attached to the top of the staff, in token of the speed of hermes as a messenger. in historical times the caduceus was the attribute of hermes as the god of commerce and peace, and among the greeks it was the distinctive mark of heralds and ambassadors, whose persons it rendered inviolable. the caduceus itself was not used by the romans, but the derivative _caduceator_ occurs in the sense of a peace commissioner. see l. preller, \"der hermesstab\" in _philologus_, i. (1846); o.a. hoffmann, _hermes und kerykeion_ (1890), who argues that hermes is a male lunar divinity and his staff the special attribute of aphrodite-astarte. caducous (lat. _caducus_), a botanical term for \"falling early,\" as the sepals of a poppy, before the petals expand. caecilia. this name was given by linnaeus to the blind, or nearly blind, worm-like batrachians which were formerly associated with the snakes and are now classed as an order under the names of _apoda, peromela_ or _gymnophiona_. the type of the genus _caecilia_ is _caecilia tentaculata_, a moderately slender species, not unlike a huge earth-worm, growing to 2 ft. in length with a diameter of three-quarters of an inch. it is one of the largest species of the order. other species of the same genus are very slender in form, as for instance _caecilia gracilis_, [v.04 p.0933] which with a length of 21⁄4 ft. has a diameter of only a quarter of an inch. one of the most remarkable characters of the genus _caecilia_, which it shares with about two-thirds of the known genera of the order, is the presence of thin, cycloid, imbricate scales imbedded in the skin, a character only to be detected by raising the epidermis near the dermal folds, which more or less completely encircle the body. this feature, unique among living batrachians, is probably directly inherited from the scaly _stegocephalia_, a view which is further strengthened by the similarity of structure of these scales in both groups, which the histological investigations of h. credner have revealed. the skull is well ossified and contains a greater number of bones than occur in any other living batrachian. there is therefore strong reason for tracing the caecilians directly from the stegocephalia, as was the view of t.h. huxley and of r. wiedersheim, since supported by h. gadow and by j.s. kingsley. e.d. cope had advocated the abolition of the order apoda and the incorporation of the caecilians among the urodela or caudata in the vicinity of the amphiumidae, of which he regarded them as further degraded descendants; and this opinion, which was supported by very feeble and partly erroneous arguments, has unfortunately received the support of the two great authorities, p. and f. sarasin, to whom we are indebted for our first information on the breeding habits and development of these batrachians. the knowledge of species of caecilians has made rapid progress, and we are now acquainted with about fifty, which are referred to twenty-one genera. the principal characters on which these genera are founded reside in the presence or absence of scales, the presence or absence of eyes, the presence of one or of two series of teeth in the lower jaw, the structure of the tentacle (representing the so-called \"balancers\" of urodele larvae) on the side of the snout, and the presence or absence of a vacuity between the parietal and squamosal bones of the skull. of these twenty-one genera six are peculiar to tropical africa, one to the seychelles, four to south-eastern asia, eight to central and south america, one occurs in both continental africa and the seychelles, and one is common to africa and south america. these batrachians are found in damp situations, usually in soft mud. the complete development of _ichthyophis glutinosus_ has been observed in ceylon by p. and f. sarasin. the eggs, forming a rosary-like string, are very large, and deposited in a burrow near the water. the female protects them by coiling herself round the egg-mass, which the young do not leave till after the loss of the very large external gills (one on each side); they then lead an aquatic life, and are provided with an opening, or spiraculum, on each side of the neck. in these larvae the head is fish-like, provided with much-developed labial lobes, with the eyes much more distinct than in the perfect animal; the tail, which is quite rudimentary in all caecilians, is very distinct, strongly compressed, and bordered above and beneath by a dermal fold. in _hypogeophis_, a caecilian from the seychelles studied by a. brauer, the development resembles that of _ichthyophis_, but there is no aquatic larval stage. the young leaves the egg in the perfect condition, and at once leads a terrestrial life like its parents. in accordance with this abbreviated development, the caudal membranous crest does not exist, and the branchial aperture closes as soon as the external gills disappear. in the south american _typhlonectes_, and in the _dermophis_ from the island of st thome, west africa, the young are brought forth alive, in the former as larvae with external gills, and in the latter in the perfect air-breathing condition. references.--r. wiedersheim, _anatomie der gymnophionen_ (jena, 1879), 4to; g.a. boulenger, \"synopsis of the genera and species,\" _p.z.s._, 1895, p. 401; r. greeff, \"uber siphonops thomensis,\" _sizb. ges. naturw._ (marburg, 1884), p. 15; p. and f. sarasin, _naturwissenschaftliche forschungen auf ceylon_, ii. (wiesbaden, 1887-1890), 4to; a. brauer, \"beitrage zur kenntnis der entwicklungsgeschichte und der anatomie der gymnophionen,\" _zool. jahrb. ana._ x., 1897, p. 389, xii., 1898, p. 477, and xvii., 1904, suppl. p. 381; e.a. goldi, \"entwicklung von siphonops annulatus,\" _zool. jahrb. syst._ xii., 1899, p. 170; j.s. kingsley, \"the systematic position of the caecilians,\" _tufts coll. stud._ vii., 1902, p. 323. (g. a. b.)",
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