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    "source_title": "Encyclopaedia Britannica (1911)",
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    "chunk_id": "1911:benedictines:56d83c71cbb5",
    "title": "BENEDICTINES",
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    "verified_text": "benedictines, or black monks, monks living according to the rule of st benedict (q.v.) of nursia. subiaco in the abruzzi was the cradle of the benedictines, and in that neighbourhood st benedict established twelve monasteries. afterwards giving up the direction of these, he migrated to monte cassino and there established the monastery which became the centre whence his rule and institute spread. from monte cassino he founded a monastery at terracina. these fourteen are the only monasteries of which we have any knowledge as being founded before st benedict's death; for the mission of st placidus to sicily must certainly be regarded as mere romance, nor does there seem to be any solid reason for viewing more favourably the mission of st maurus to gaul. there is some ground for believing that it was the third abbot of monte cassino who began to spread a knowledge of the rule beyond the circle of st benedict's own foundations. about 580-590 monte cassino was sacked by the lombards, and the community came to rome and was established in a monastery attached to the lateran basilica, in the centre of the ecclesiastical world. it is now commonly recognized by scholars that when gregory the great became a monk and turned his palace on the caelian hill into a monastery, the monastic life there carried out was fundamentally based on the benedictine rule (see f.h. dudden, _gregory the great_, i. 108). from this monastery went forth st augustine and his companions on their mission to england in 596, carrying their monachism with them; thus england was the first country out of italy in which benedictine life was firmly planted. in the course of the 7th century benedictine life was gradually introduced in gaul, and in the 8th it was carried into the germanic lands from england. it is doubtful whether in spain there were benedictine monasteries, properly so called, until a later period. in many parts the benedictine rule met the much stricter irish rule of columbanus, introduced by the irish missionaries on the continent, and after brief periods, first of conflict and then of fusion, it gradually absorbed and supplanted it; thus during the 8th century it became, out of ireland and other purely celtic lands, the only rule and form of monastic life throughout western europe,--so completely that charlemagne once asked if there ever had been any other monastic rule. what may be called the inner side of benedictine life and history is treated in the article monasticism; here it is possible to deal only with the broad facts of the external history. the chief external works achieved for western europe by the benedictines during the early middle ages may be summed up under the following heads. 1. _the conversion of the teutonic races._--the tendency of modern historical scholarship justifies the maintenance of the tradition that st augustine and his forty companions were the first great benedictine apostles and missioners. through their efforts christianity was firmly planted in various parts of england; and after the conversion of the country it was english benedictines--wilfrid, willibrord, swithbert, willehad--who evangelized friesland and holland; and another, winfrid or boniface, who, with his fellow-monks willibald and others, evangelized the greater part of central germany and founded and organized the german church. it was anschar, a monk of corbie, who first preached to the scandinavians, and other benedictines were apostles to poles, prussians and other slavonic peoples. the conversion of the teutonic races may properly be called the work of the benedictines. 2. _the civilization of north-western europe._--as the result of their missionary enterprises the benedictines penetrated into all these lands and established monasteries, so that by the 10th or 11th century benedictine houses existed in great numbers throughout the whole of latin christendom except ireland. these monasteries became centres of civilizing influences by the method of presenting object-lessons in organized work, in agriculture, in farming, in the arts and trades, and also in well-ordered life. the unconscious method by which such great results were brought about has been well described by j.s. brewer (_preface_ to works of giraldus cambrensis, rolls series, iv.) and f.a. gasquet. 3. _education._--boys were educated in benedictine houses from the beginning, but at first they were destined to be monks. the monasteries, however, played a great part in the educational side of the carolingian revival; and certainly from that date schools for boys destined to live and work in the world were commonly attached to benedictine monasteries. from that day to this education has been among the recognized and principal works of benedictines. 4. _letters and learning._--this side of benedictine life is most typically represented by the venerable bede, the gentle and learned scholar of the early middle ages. in those times the monasteries were the only places of security and rest in western europe, the only places where letters could in any measure be cultivated. it was in the monasteries that the writings of latin antiquity, both classical and ecclesiastical, were transcribed and preserved. in a gigantic system embracing hundreds of monasteries and thousands of monks, and spread over all the countries of western europe, without any organic bond between the different houses, and exposed to all the vicissitudes of the wars and conquests of those wild times, to say that the monks often fell short of the ideal of their state, and sometimes short of the christian, and even the moral standard, is but to say that monks are men. failures there have been many, and scandals not a few in benedictine history; but it may be said with truth that there does not appear to have been ever a period of widespread or universal corruption, however much at times and in places primitive love may have waxed cold. and when such declensions occurred, they soon called forth efforts at reform and revival; indeed these constantly recurring reform-movements are one of the most striking features of benedictine history, and the great proof of the vitality of the institute throughout the ages. the first of these movements arose during the carolingian revival (c. 800), and is associated with the name of benedict of aniane. under the auspices of charlemagne and louis the pious he initiated a scheme for federating into one great order, with himself as abbot general, all the monasteries of charles's empire, and for enforcing throughout a rigid uniformity in observance. for this purpose a synod of abbots was assembled at aix-la-chapelle in 817, and a series of 80 _capitula_ passed, regulating the life of the monasteries. the scheme as a whole was short-lived and did not survive its originator; but the _capitula_ were commonly recognized as supplying a useful and much-needed supplement to st benedict's rule on points not sufficiently provided for therein. accordingly these _capitula_ exercised a wide influence among benedictines even outside the empire. and benedict of aniane's ideas of organization found embodiment a century later in the order of cluny (910), which for a time overshadowed the great body of mere benedictines (see cluny). here it will suffice to say that the most distinctive features of the cluny system were (1) a notable increase and prolongation of the church services, which came to take up the greater part of the working day; (2) a strongly centralized government, whereby the houses of the order in their hundreds were strictly subject to the abbot of cluny. though forming a distinct and separate organism cluny claimed to be, and was recognized as, a body of benedictine houses; but from that time onwards arose a number of independent bodies, or \"orders,\" which took the benedictine rule as the basis of their life. the more important of these were: in the 11th and 12th centuries, the orders of camaldulians, vallombrosians, fontevrault and the cistercians, and in the 13th and 14th the silvestrines, celestines and olivetans (see separate articles). the general tendency of these benedictine offshoots was in the direction of greater austerity of life than was practised by the black monks or contemplated by st benedict's rule--some of them were semi-eremitical; the most important by far were the cistercians, whose ground-idea was to reproduce exactly the life of st benedict's own monastery. these various orders were also organized and governed according to the system of centralized authority devised by st pachomius (see monasticism) and brought into vogue by cluny in the west. what has here to be traced is the history of the great body of benedictine monasteries that held aloof from these separatist movements. for the first four or five centuries of benedictine history there was no organic bond between any of the monasteries; each house formed an independent autonomous family, managing its own affairs and subject to no external authority or control except that of the bishop of the diocese. but the influence of cluny, even on monasteries that did not enter into its organism, was enormous; many adopted cluny customs and practices and moulded their life and spirit after the model it set; and many such monasteries became in turn centres of revival and reform in many lands, so that during the 10th and 11th centuries arose free unions of monasteries based on a common observance derived from a central abbey. fleury and hirsau are well-known examples. basing themselves on st gregory's counsel to st augustine, dunstan, aethelwold and oswald adopted from the observance of foreign monasteries, and notably fleury and ghent, what was suitable for the restoration of english monachism, and so produced the _concordia regularis_, interesting as the first serious attempt to bring about uniformity of observance among the monasteries of an entire nation. in the course of the 12th century sporadic and limited unions of black monk monasteries arose in different parts. but notwithstanding all these movements, the majority of the great black monk abbeys continued to the end of the 12th century in their primeval isolation. but in the year 1215, at the fourth lateran council, were made regulations destined profoundly to modify benedictine polity and history. it was decreed that the benedictine houses of each ecclesiastical province should henceforth be federated for the purposes of mutual help and the maintenance of discipline, and that for these ends the abbots should every third year meet in a provincial chapter (or synod), in order to pass laws binding on all and to appoint visitors who, in addition to the bishops, should canonically visit the monasteries and report on their condition in spirituals and temporals to the ensuing chapter. the english monks took the lead in carrying out this legislation, and in 1218 the first chapter of the province of canterbury was held at oxford, and up to the dissolution under henry viii. the triennial chapters took place with wonderful regularity. fitful attempts were made elsewhere to carry out the decrees, and in 1336 benedict xii. by the bull _benedictina_ tried to give further development to the system and to secure its general observance. the organization of the benedictine houses into provinces or chapters under this legislation interfered in the least possible degree with the benedictine tradition of mutual independence of the houses; the provinces were loose federations of autonomous houses, the legislative power of the chapter and the canonical visitations being the only forms of external interference. the english benedictines never advanced farther along the path of centralization; up to their destruction this polity remained in operation among them, and proved itself by its results to be well adapted to the conditions of the benedictine rule and life. in other lands things did not on the whole go so well, and many causes at work during the later middle ages tended to bring about relaxation in the benedictine houses; above all the vicious system of commendatory abbots, rife everywhere except in england. and so in the period of the reforming councils of constance and basel the state of the religious orders was seriously taken in hand, and in response to the public demand for reforming the church, \"in head and members,\" reform movements were set on foot, as among others, so among the benedictines of various parts of europe. these movements issued in the congregational system which is the present polity among benedictines. in the german lands, where the most typical congregation was the bursfeld union (1446), which finally embraced over 100 monasteries throughout germany, the system was kept on the lines of the lateran decree and the bull _benedictina_, and received only some further developments in the direction of greater organization; but in italy the congregation of s. justina at padua (1421), afterwards called the cassinese, departed altogether from the old lines, setting up a highly centralized government, after the model of the italian republics, whereby the autonomy of the monasteries was destroyed, and they were subjected to the authority of a central governing board. with various modifications or restrictions this latter system was imported into all the latin lands, into spain and portugal, and thence into brazil, and into lorraine and france, where the celebrated congregation of st maur (see maurists) was formed early in the 17th century. during this century the benedictine houses in many parts of catholic europe united themselves into congregations, usually characterized by an austerity that was due to the tridentine reform movement. in england the benedictines had, from every point of view, flourished exceedingly. at the time of the dissolution there were nearly 300 black benedictine houses, great and small, men and women, including most of the chief religious houses of the land (for lists see tables and maps in gasquet's _english monastic life_, and _catholic dictionary_, art. \"benedictines\"). it is now hardly necessary to say that the grave charges brought against the monks are no longer credited by serious historians (gasquet, _henry viii. and the monasteries_; j. gairdner, prefaces to the relevant volumes of _calendars of state papers of henry viii._). in mary's reign some of the surviving monks were brought together, and westminster abbey was restored. of the monks professed there during this momentary revival, one, sigebert buckley, lived on into the reign of james i.; and being the only survivor of the benedictines of england, he in 1607 invested with the english habit and affiliated to westminster abbey and to the english congregation two english priests, already benedictines in the italian congregation. by this act the old english benedictine line was perpetuated; and in 1619 a number of english monks professed in spain were aggregated by pontifical act to these representatives of the old english benedictines, and thus was constituted the present english benedictine congregation. three or four monasteries of the revived english benedictines were established on the continent at the beginning of the 17th century, and remained there till driven back to england by the french revolution. the reformation and the religious wars spread havoc among the benedictines in many parts of northern europe; and as a consequence, in part of the rule of joseph ii. of austria, in part of the french revolution, nearly every benedictine monastery in europe was suppressed--it is said that in the early years of the 19th century scarcely thirty in all survived. but the latter half of the century witnessed a series of remarkable revivals, and first in bavaria, under the influence of louis i. the french congregation (which does not enjoy continuity with the maurists) was inaugurated by dom gueranger in 1833, and the german congregation of beuron in 1863. two vigorous congregations have arisen in the united states. these are all new creations since 1830. in italy, spain, portugal and brazil only a few monasteries survive the various revolutions, and in a crippled state; but signs are not wanting of renewed life: st benedict's own monasteries of subiaco and monte cassino are relatively flourishing. in austria, hungary and switzerland there are some thirty great abbeys, most of which have had a continued existence since the middle ages. the english congregation is composed of three large abbeys (downside, ampleforth and woolhampton), a cathedral priory (hereford) and a nunnery (stanbrook abbey, worcester); there are besides in england three or four abbeys belonging to foreign congregations, and several nunneries subject to the bishops. each congregation has its president, who is merely a president, with limited powers, and not a general superior like the provincials of other orders; so that the primitive benedictine principle of each monastery being self-contained and autonomous is preserved. similarly each congregation is independent and self-governing, there being no superior-general or central authority, as in other orders. leo xiii. established an international benedictine college in rome for theological studies, and conferred on its abbot the title of \"abbot primate,\" with precedence among black monk abbots. he is only _primus inter pares_, and exercises no kind of superiority over the other abbots or congregations. thus the benedictine polity may be described as a number of autonomous federations of autonomous monasteries. the individual monks, too, belong not to the order or the congregation, but each to the monastery in which he became a monk. the chief external work of the benedictines at the present day is secondary education; there are 114 secondary schools or _gymnasia_ attached to the abbeys, wherein the monks teach over 12,000 boys; and many of the nunneries have girls' schools. in certain countries (among them england) where there is a dearth of secular priests, benedictines undertake parochial work. the statistics of the order (1905) show that of black benedictines there are over 4000 choir-monks and nearly 2000 lay brothers--figures that have more than doubled since 1880. if the cistercians and lesser offshoots of the order be added, the sum total of choir-monks and lay brothers exceeds 11,000. in conclusion a word must be said on the benedictine nuns. from the beginning the number of women living the benedictine life has not fallen far short of that of the men. st gregory describes st benedict's sister scholastica as a nun (_sanctimonialis_), and she is looked upon as the foundress of benedictine nuns. as the institute spread to other lands nunneries arose on all sides, and nowhere were the benedictine nuns more numerous or more remarkable than in england, from saxon times to the reformation. a strong type of womanhood is revealed in the correspondence of st boniface with various saxon benedictine nuns, some in england and some who accompanied him to the continent and there established great convents. in the early times the benedictine nuns were not strictly enclosed, and could, when occasion called for it, freely go out of their convent walls to perform any special work: on the other hand, they did not resemble the modern active congregations of women, whose ordinary work lies outside the convent. it has to be said that in the course of the middle ages, especially the later middle ages, grave disorders arose in many convents; and this doubtless led, in the reform movements initiated by the councils of constance and basel, and later of trent, to the introduction of strict enclosure in benedictine convents, which now is the almost universal practice. at the present day there are of black benedictine nuns 262 convents with 7000 nuns, the large majority being directly subject to the diocesan bishops; if the cistercians and others be included, there are 387 convents with nearly 11,000 nuns. in england there are a dozen benedictine nunneries. authorities--the chief general authority for benedictine history up to the middle of the 12th century is mabillon's _annales_, in 6 vols. folio; for the later period no such general work exists, but the various countries, congregations or even abbeys have to be taken separately. montalembert's _monks of the west_ gives the early history very fully; the later history, to the beginning of the 18th century, may be found in helyot, _hist. des ordres religieux_, v. and vi. (1792). a useful sketch, with references to the best literature, is in max heimbucher, _orden und kongregationen_ (1896), i. ss 17-28; see also the article \"benedictinerorden\" in wetzer u. welter, _kirchenlexicon_ (2nd ed.), and \"benedikt von nursia und der benediktinerorden,\" in herzog-hauck, _realencyklopadie_ (3rd ed.). for england see ethelred taunton, _english black monks_ (1897); and for the modern history (19th century) the series entitled \"succisa virescit\" in the _downside review_, 1880 onwards, by j.g. dolan. on the inner spirit and working of the institute see f.a. gasquet, _sketch of monastic constitutional history_ (being the preface to the 2nd ed., 1895, of the trans. of montalembert) and _english monastic life_ (1904); and newman's two essays on the benedictines, among the _historical sketches_. on benedictine nuns much will be found in the above-mentioned authorities, and also in lina eckenstein, _woman in monasticism_ (1896). on benedictines and the arts see f.h. kraus, _geschichte der christlichen kunst_ (freiburg-i-b., 1896-1897). (e. c. b.) benediction (lat. _benedictio_, from _benedicere_, to bless), generally, the utterance of a blessing or of a devout wish for the prosperity and happiness of a person or enterprise. in the usage of the catholic church, both east and west, though the benediction as defined above has its place as between one christian and another, it has also a special place in the sacramental system in virtue of the special powers of blessing vested in the priesthood. sacerdotal benedictions are not indeed sacraments--means of grace ordained by christ himself,--but sacramentals (_sacramenta minora_) ordained by the authority of the church and exercised by the priests, as the plenipotentiaries of god, in virtue of the powers conferred on them at their ordination; \"that whatever they bless may be blessed, and whatever they consecrate may be consecrated.\" the power to bless in this ecclesiastical sense is reserved to priests alone; the blessing of the paschal candle on holy saturday by the deacon being the one exception that proves the rule, for he uses for the purpose grains of incense previously blessed by the priest at the altar. but though by some the benediction has thus been brought into connexion with the supreme means of grace, the sacrifice of the mass, the blessing does not in itself confer grace and does not act on its recipients _ex opere operato_. it must not be supposed, however, that the catholic idea of a sacerdotal blessing has anything of the vague character associated with a benediction by protestants. both by catholics and by protestants blessings may be applied to things inanimate as well as animate; but while in the reformed churches this involves no more than an appeal to god for a special blessing, or a solemn \"setting apart\" of persons or objects for sacred purposes, in the catholic idea it implies a special power, conferred by god, of the priests over the invisible forces of evil. it thus stands in the closest relation to the rite of exorcism, of which it is the complement. according to catholic doctrine, the fall involved the subjection, not only of man, but of all things animate and inanimate, to the influence of evil spirits; in support of which st paul's epistles to the romans (viii.) and to timothy (1 tim. iv. 4-5) are quoted. this belief is, of course, not specifically christian; it has been held at all times and everywhere by men of the most various races and creeds; and, if there be any validity in the contention that that is true which has been held _semper, ubique, et ab omnibus_, no fact is better established. in general it may be said, then, that whereas exorcism is practised in order to cast out devils already in possession, benediction is the formula by which they are prevented from entering in. protestants have condemned these formulae as so much magic, and in this modern science tends to agree with them; but to orthodox protestants at least catholics have a perfect right to reply that, in taking this line, they are but repeating the accusation brought by the pharisees against christ, viz. that he cast out devils \"by beelzebub, prince of the devils.\" though, however, the discomfiture of malignant spirits still plays an important part in the catholic doctrine of benedictions, this has on the whole tended to become subordinated to other benefits. this is but natural; for, though the progress of knowledge has not disproved the existence of devils, it has greatly limited the supposed range of their activities. according to father patrick morrisroe, dean and professor of liturgy at maynooth, the efficacy of benedictions is fourfold: (1) the excitation of pious emotions and affections of the heart, and by their means the remission of venial sins and of the temporal punishments due for these; (2) freedom from the power of evil spirits; (3) preservation and restoration of bodily health; (4) various other benefits, temporal and spiritual. benedictions, moreover, are twofold: (a) invocative, i.e. those invoking the divine benignity for persons and things without changing their condition, e.g. children or food; (b) constitutive, i.e. those which give to persons or things an indelible religious character, i.e. monks and nuns, or the furniture of the altar. the second of these brings the act of benediction into contact with the principle of consecration (q.v.); for by the formal blessing by the duly constituted authority persons, places and things are consecrated, i.e. reserved to sacred uses and preserved from the contaminating influence of evil spirits. thus graveyards are consecrated, i.e. solemnly blessed in order that the powers of evil may not disturb the bodies of the faithful departed; thus, too, the blessing of bells gives them a special power against evil demons. though the giving of blessings as a sacerdotal function is proper to the whole order of priests, particular benedictions have, by ecclesiastical authority, been reserved for the bishops, who may, however, delegate some of them; i.e. the benediction of abbots, of priests at their ordination, of virgins taking the veil, of churches, cemeteries, oratories, and of all articles for use in connexion with the altar (chalices, patens, vestments, &c.), of military colours, of soldiers and of their arms. the holy oil is also blessed by bishops in the roman catholic church; in the greek church, on the other hand, the oil for the chrism at baptism is blessed by the priest. to the pope alone is reserved the blessing of the pallium, the golden rose, the \"agnus-dei\" and royal swords; he alone, too, can issue blessings that involve some days' indulgence. the ceremonies prescribed for the various benedictions are set forth in the _rituale romanum_ (tit. viii.). in general it is laid down (cap. i.) that the priest, in benedictions outside the mass, shall be vested in surplice and stole, and shall give the blessing standing and bare-headed. certain prayers are said before each benediction, after which he sprinkles the person or thing to be blessed with holy water and, where prescribed, censes them. he is attended by a minister with a vase of holy water, an _aspergillum_ and a copy of the _rituale_ or missal. in all benedictions the sign of the cross is made. in the blessing of the holy water (cap. ii.), the essential instrument of all benedictions, the object is dearly to establish its potency against evil spirits. first the \"creature of salt\" is exorcized, \"that ... thou mayest be to all who take thee health of body and soul; that wherever thou art sprinkled every phantasy and wickedness and wile of diabolic deceit may flee and leave that place, and every unclean spirit\"; a prayer to god for the blessing of the salt follows; then the \"creature of water\" is exorcized, \"that thou mayest become exorcized water for the purpose of putting to flight every power of the enemy, that thou mayest avail to uproot and expel this enemy with all his apostate angels, by the virtue of the same our lord jesus christ, &c.\"; and again a prayer to god follows that the water may \"become a creature in the service of his mysteries, for the driving out of demons, &c.\" in the formulae of blessings that follow, the special efficacy against devils is implied by the aspersion with holy water; the benedictions themselves are usually merely invocative of the divine protection or assistance, though, e.g., in the form for blessing sick animals the priest prays that \"all diabolic power in them may be destroyed, and that they may be ill no longer.\" it is to be remarked that the \"laying on of hands,\" which in the old and the new testament alike is the usual \"form\" of blessing, is not used in liturgical benedictions, the priest being directed merely to extend his right hand towards the person to be blessed. the appendix _de benedictionibus_ to the _rituale romanum_ contains formulae, often of much simple beauty, for blessing all manner of persons and things, from the congregation as a whole and sick men and women, to railways, ships, blast-furnaces, lime-kilns, articles of food, medicine and medical bandages and all manner of domestic animals. the _benediction of the blessed sacrament_, commonly called simply \"benediction\" (fr. _salut_, ger. _segen_), is one of the most popular of the services of the roman catholic church. it is usually held in the afternoon or evening, sometimes at the conclusion of vespers, compline or the stations of the cross, and consists in the singing of certain hymns and canticles, more particularly the _o salutaris hostia_ and the _tantum ergo_, before the host, which is exposed on the altar in a monstrance and surrounded by not less than ten lighted candles. often litanies and hymns to the virgin are added. at the conclusion the priest, his shoulders wrapped in the humeral veil, takes the monstrance and with it makes the sign of the cross over the kneeling congregation, whence the name benediction. the service, the details of which vary in different countries, is of comparatively modern origin. father thurston traces it to a combination in the 16th and 17th centuries of customs that had their origin in the 13th, i.e. certain gild services in honour of the blessed virgin, and the growing habit, resulting naturally from the doctrine of transubstantiation, of ascribing a supreme virtue to the act of looking on the holy sacrament. in the reformed churches the word \"benediction\" is technically confined to the blessing with which the priest or minister dismisses the congregation at the close of the service. see the article \"benediktionen,\" by e.c. achelis in herzog-hauck, _realencyklopadie_ (leipzig, 1897); _the catholic encyclopaedia_ (london and new york, 1908) s. \"blessing,\" by p. morrisroe, and \"benediction of the blessed sacrament,\" by herbert thurston, s.j.; in all of which further authorities are cited.",
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