AZEGLIO

azeglio, massimo taparelli, marquis d' (1798-1866), italian statesman and author, was born at turin in october 1798, descended from an ancient and noble piedmontese family. his father, cesare d'azeglio, was an officer in the piedmontese army and held a high position at court; on the return of pope [v.03 p.0080] pius vii. to rome after the fall of napoleon, cesare d'azeglio was sent as special envoy to the vatican, and he took his son, then sixteen years of age, with him as an extra attache. young massimo was given a commission in a cavalry regiment, which he soon relinquished on account of his health. during his residence in rome he had acquired a love for art and music, and he now determined to become a painter, to the horror of his family, who belonged to the stiff and narrow piedmontese aristocracy. his father reluctantly consented, and massimo settled in rome, devoting himself to art. he led an abstemious life, maintaining himself by his painting for several years. but he was constantly meditating on the political state of italy. in 1830 he returned to turin, and after his father's death in 1831 removed to milan. there he remained for twelve years, moving in the literary and artistic circles of the city. he became the intimate of alessandro manzoni the novelist, whose daughter he married; thenceforth literature became his chief occupation instead of art, and he produced two historical novels, _niccolo dei lapi_ and _ettore fieramosca_, in imitation of manzoni, and with pronounced political tendencies, his object being to point out the evils of foreign domination in italy and to reawaken national feeling. in 1845 he visited romagna as an unauthorized political envoy, to report on its conditions and the troubles which he foresaw would break out on the death of pope gregory xvi. the following year he published his famous pamphlet _degli ultimi casi di romagna_ at florence, in consequence of which he was expelled from tuscany. he spent the next few months in rome, sharing the general enthusiasm over the supposed liberalism of the new pope, pius ix.; like v. gioberti and balbo he believed in an italian confederation under papal auspices, and was opposed to the radical wing of the liberal party. his political activity increased, and he wrote various other pamphlets, among which was _i lutti di lombardia_ (1848). on the outbreak of the first war of independence, d'azeglio donned the papal uniform and took part under general durando in the defence of vicenza, where he was severely wounded. he retired to florence to recover, but as he opposed the democrats who ruled in tuscany, he was expelled from that country for the second time. he was now a famous man, and early in 1849 charles albert, king of sardinia, invited him to form a cabinet. but realizing how impossible it was to renew the campaign, and "not having the heart to sign, in such wretched internal and external conditions, a treaty of peace with austria" (_correspondance politique_, by e. rendu), he refused. after the defeat of novara (23rd of march 1849), charles albert abdicated and was succeeded by victor emmanuel ii. d'azeglio was again called on to form a cabinet, and this time, although the situation was even more difficult, he accepted, concluded a treaty of peace, dissolved the chamber, and summoned a new one to ratify it. the treaty was accepted, and d'azeglio continued in office for the next three years. while all the rest of italy was a prey to despotism, in piedmont the king maintained the constitution intact in the face of the general wave of reaction. d'azeglio conducted the affairs of the country with tact and ability, improving its diplomatic relations, and opposing the claims of the roman curia. he invited count cavour, then a rising young politician, to enter the ministry in 1850. cavour and farini, also a member of the cabinet, made certain declarations in the chamber (may 1852) which led the ministry in the direction of an alliance with rattazzi and the left. of this d'azeglio disapproved, and therefore resigned office, but on the king's request he formed a new ministry, excluding both cavour and farini. in october, however, owing to ill-health and dissatisfaction with some of his colleagues, as well as for other reasons not quite clear, he resigned once more and retired into private life, suggesting cavour to the king as his successor. for the next four years he lived modestly at turin, devoting himself once more to art, although he also continued to take an active interest in politics, cavour always consulting him on matters of moment. in 1855 he was appointed director of the turin art gallery. in 1859 he was given various political missions, including one to paris and london to prepare the basis for a general congress of the powers on the italian question. when war between piedmont and austria appeared inevitable he returned to italy, and was sent as royal commissioner by cavour to romagna, whence the papal troops had been expelled. after the peace of villafranca, d'azeglio was recalled with orders to withdraw the piedmontese garrisons; but he saw the danger of allowing the papal troops to reoccupy the province, and after a severe inner struggle left bologna without the troops, and interviewed the king. the latter approved of his action, and said that his orders had not been accurately expressed; thus romagna was saved. that same year he published a pamphlet in french entitled _de la politique et du droit chretien au point de vue de la question italienne_, with the object of inducing napoleon iii. to continue his pro-italian policy. early in 1860 cavour appointed him governor of milan, evacuated by the austrians after the battle of magenta, a position which he held with great ability. but, disapproving of the government's policy with regard to garibaldi's sicilian expedition and the occupation by piedmont of the kingdom of naples as inopportune, he resigned office. the death of his two brothers in 1862 and of cavour in 1861 caused massimo great grief, and he subsequently led a comparatively retired life. but he took part in politics, both as a deputy and a writer, his two chief subjects of interest being the roman question and the relations of piedmont (now the kingdom of italy) with mazzini and the other revolutionists. in his opinion italy must be unified by means of the franco-piedmontese army alone, all connexion with the conspirators being eschewed, while the pope should enjoy nominal sovereignty over rome, with full spiritual independence, the capital of italy being established elsewhere, but the romans being italian citizens (see his letters to e. rendu and his pamphlet _le questioni urgenti_). he strongly disapproved of the convention of 1864 between the italian government and the pope. the last few years of d'azeglio's life were spent chiefly at his villa of cannero, where he set to work to write his own memoirs. he died of fever on the 15th of january 1866. massimo d'azeglio was a very attractive personality, as well as an absolutely honest patriot, and a characteristic example of the best type of piedmontese aristocrat. he was cautious and conservative; in his general ideas on the liberation of italy he was wrong, and to some extent he was an amateur in politics, but of his sincerity there is no doubt. as an author his political writings are trenchant and clear, but his novels are somewhat heavy and old-fashioned, and are interesting only if one reads the political allusions between the lines. besides a variety of newspaper articles and pamphlets, d'azeglio's chief works are the two novels _ettore fieramosca_ (1833) and _niccolo dei lapi_ (1841), and a volume of autobiographical memoirs entitled _i miei ricordi_, a most charming work published after his death, in 1866, but unfortunately incomplete. see in addition to the _ricordi_, l. carpi's _il risorgimento italiano_, vol. i. pp. 288 sq. and the _souvenirs historiques_ of constance d'azeglio, massimo's niece (turin, 1884). (l. v.*) azerb[=a]ij[=a]n (also spelt aderbijan; the _azerb[=a]deg[=a]n_ of medieval writers, the _athropatakan_ and _atropatene_ of the ancients), the north-western and most important province of persia. it is separated from russian territory on the n. by the river aras (araxes), while it has the caspian sea, gilan and khamseh (zenj[=a]n) on the e., kurdistan on the s., and asiatic turkey on the w. its area is estimated at 32,000 sq. m.; its population at 1-1/2 to 2 millions, comprising various races, as persians proper, turks, kurds, syrians, armenians, &c. the country is superior in fertility to most provinces of persia, and consists of a regular succession of undulating eminences, partially cultivated and opening into extensive plains. near the centre of the province the mountains of sahand rise in an accumulated mass to the height of 12,000 ft. above the sea. the highest mountain of the province is in its eastern part, mount savelan, with an elevation of 15,792 ft., and the talish mountains, which run from north to south, parallel to and at no great distance from the caspian, have an altitude of 9000 ft. the principal rivers are the aras and kizil uzain, both receiving numerous tributaries and flowing into the caspian, and the jaghatu, tatava, murdi, aji and others, which [v.03 p.0081] drain into the urmia lake. the country to the west of the lake, with the districts of selmas and urmia, is the most prosperous part of azerb[=a]ij[=a]n, yet even here the intelligent traveller laments the want of enterprise among the inhabitants. azerb[=a]ij[=a]n is one of the most productive provinces of persia. the orchards and gardens in which many villages are embosomed yield delicious fruits of almost every description, and great quantities, dried, are exported, principally to russia. provisions are cheap and abundant, but there is a lack of forests and timber trees. lead, copper, sulphur, orpiment, also lignite, have been found within the confines of the province; also a kind of beautiful, variegated, translucent marble, which takes a high polish, is used in the construction of palatial buildings, tanks, baths, &c., and is known as maragha, or tabriz marble. the climate is healthy, not hot in summer, and cold in winter. the cold sometimes is severely felt by the poor classes owing to want of proper fuel, for which a great part of the population has no substitute except dried cow-dung. snow lies on the mountains for about eight months in the year, and water is everywhere abundant. the best soils when abundantly irrigated yield from 50- to 60-fold, and the water for this purpose is supplied by the innumerable streams which intersect the province. the natives of azerb[=a]ij[=a]n make excellent soldiers, and about a third of the persian army is composed of them. the province is divided into a number of administrative sub-provinces or districts, each with a _h[=a]kim_, governor or sub-governor, under the governor-general, who under the kajar dynasty has always been the heir-apparent to the throne of persia, assisted by a responsible minister appointed by the shah. the administrative divisions are as follows:--tabriz and environs; uskuh; deh-kharegan; maragha; miandoab; sa[=u]jbulagh; sulduz; urmia; selmas; khoi; maku; gerger; merend; karadagh; arvanek; talish; ardebil; mishkin; khalkh[=a]l; hashtrud; garmrud; afshar; sain kaleh; ujan; sarab. the revenue amounts to about l200,000 per annum in cash and kind, and nearly all of it is expended in the province for the maintenance of the court of the heir-apparent, the salaries and pay to government officials, troops, pensions, &c. (a. h.-s.) azimuth (from the arabic), in astronomy, the angular distance from the north or south point of the horizon to the foot of the vertical circle through a heavenly body. in the case of a horizontal line the azimuth is its deviation from the north or south direction. azo (_c._ 1150-1230), italian jurist. this azo, whose name is sometimes written azzo and azzolenus, and who is occasionally described as azo soldanus, from the surname of his father, is to be distinguished from two other famous italians of the same name, viz. azo lambertaccius, a canonist of the 13th century, professor of canon law at the university of bologna, author of _questiones in jus canonicum_, and azo de ramenghis, a canonist of the 14th century, also a professor of canon law at bologna, and author of _repetitiones super libro decretorum_. few particulars are known as to the life of azo, further than that he was born at bologna about the middle of the 12th century, and was a pupil of joannes bassianus, and afterwards became professor of civil law in the university of his native town. he also took an active part in municipal life, bologna, with the other lombard republics, having gained its municipal independence. azo occupied a very important position amongst the glossators, and his _readings on the code_, which were collected by his pupil, alessandro de santo aegidio, and completed by the additions of hugolinus and odofredus, form a methodical exposition of roman law, and were of such weight before the tribunals that it used to be said, "chi non ha azzo, non vada a palazzo." azo gained a great reputation as a professor, and numbered amongst his pupils accursius and jacobus balduinus. he died about 1230.