AVIANUS

avianus, a latin writer of fables, placed by some critics in the age of the antonines, by others as late as the 6th century a.d. he appears to have lived at rome and to have been a heathen. the 42 fables which bear his name are dedicated to a certain theodosius, whose learning is spoken of in most flattering terms. he may possibly be macrobius theodosius, the author of the _saturnalia_; some think he may be the emperor of that name. nearly all the fables are to be found in babrius, who was probably avianus's source of inspiration, but as babrius wrote in greek, and avianus speaks of having made an elegiac version from a rough latin copy, probably a prose paraphrase, he was not indebted to the original. the language and metre are on the whole correct, in spite of deviations from classical usage, chiefly in the management of the pentameter. the fables soon became popular as a school-book. promythia and epimythia (introductions and morals) and paraphrases, and imitations were frequent, such as the _novus avianus_ of alexander neckam (12th century). editions.--cannegieter (1731), lachmann (1845), froehner (1862), [v.03 p.0060] bahrens in _poetae latini minores_, ellis (1887). see mueller, _de phaedri et aviani fabulis_ (1875); unrein, _de aviani aetate_ (1885); hervieux, _les fabulistes latins_ (1894); _the fables of avian translated into englyshe ... by william caxton at westmynstre_ (1483). aviary (from lat. _avis_, a bird), called by older writers "volary," a structure in which birds are kept in a state of captivity. while the habit of keeping birds in cages dates from a very remote period, it is probable that structures worthy of being termed aviaries were first used by the ancient romans, chiefly for the process of fattening birds for the table. in varro's time, 116-127 b.c., aviaries or "ornithones" (from gr. [greek: ornis, ornithos], bird) were common. these consisted of two kinds, those constructed for pleasure, in which were kept nightingales and other song-birds, and those used entirely for keeping and fattening birds for market or for the tables of their owners. varro himself had an aviary for song-birds exclusively, while lucullus combined the two classes, keeping birds both for pleasure and as delicacies for his table. the keeping of birds for pleasure, however, was very rarely indulged in, while it was a common practice with poulterers and others to have large ornithones either in the city or at sabinum for the fattening of thrushes and other birds for food. ornithones consisted merely of four high walls and a roof, and were lighted with a few very small windows, as the birds were considered to pine less if they could not see their free companions outside. water was introduced by means of pipes, and conducted in narrow channels, and the birds were fed chiefly upon dried figs, carefully peeled, and chewed into a pulp by persons hired to perform this operation. turtle-doves were fattened in large numbers for the market on wheat and millet, the latter being moistened with sweet wine; but thrushes were chiefly in request, and varro mentions one ornithon from which no less than five thousand of these birds were sold for the table in one season. the habit of keeping birds in aviaries, as we understand the term, for the sake of the pleasure they afford their owners and for studying their habits is, however, of comparatively recent date. the beginning of geographical research in the 15th century brought with it the desire to keep and study at home some of the beautiful forms of bird-life which the explorers came across, and hence it became the custom to erect aviaries for the reception of these creatures. in the 16th century, in the early part of which the canary-bird was introduced into europe, aviaries were not uncommon features of the gardens of the wealthy, and bacon refers to them in his essay on gardening (1597). elizabeth of bohemia, the daughter of james i. of england, when a child, had an outdoor aviary at coombe abbey near coventry, the back and roof of which were formed of natural rock, in which were kept birds of many species from many countries. within recent years the method of keeping birds in large aviaries has received considerable attention, and it is fully recognized that by so doing, not only do we derive great pleasure, but our knowledge of avian habits and mode of living can thereby be very considerably increased. an aviary may be of almost any size, from the large cage known, on account of its shape, as the "crystal palace aviary," to a structure as large as a church; and the term is sometimes applied to the room of a house with the windows covered with wire-netting; but as a rule it is used for outdoor structures, composed principally of wire-netting supported on a framework of either iron or woodwork. for quite hardy birds little more than this is necessary, providing that protection is given in the form of growing trees and shrubs, rock-work or rough wooden shelters. for many of the delicate species, however, which hail from tropical countries, warmth must be provided during the inclement months of the year, and thus a part at least of an aviary designed for these birds must be in the form of a wooden or brick house which can be shut up in cold weather and artificially warmed. the ideal aviary, probably, is that which is constructed in two parts, viz. a well-built house for the winter, opening out into a large wire enclosure for use in the summer months. the doors between the two portions may be of wood or glazed. the part intended as the winter home of the birds is best built in brick or stone, as these materials are practically vermin-proof and the temperature in such a building is less variable than that in a thin wooden structure. the floor should be of concrete or brick, and the house should be fitted with an efficient heating apparatus from which the heat is distributed by means of hot-water pipes. any arrangement which would permit the escape into the aviary of smoke or noxious fumes is to be strongly condemned. such a house must be well lighted, preferably by means of skylights; but it is a mistake to have the whole roof glazed, at least half of it should be of wood, covered with slates or tiles. perches consisting of branches of trees with the bark adhering should be fixed up, and, if small birds are to be kept, bundles of bushy twigs should be securely fixed up in corners under the roofs. the outer part, which will principally be used during the summer, though it will do most birds good to be let out for a few hours on mild winter days also, should be as large as possible, and constructed entirely of wire-netting stretched on a framework of wood or iron. if the latter material is selected, stout gas-piping is both stronger and more easily fitted together than solid iron rods. if the framework be of wood, this should be creosoted, preferably under pressure, or painted with three coats of good lead paint, the latter preservative also being used if iron is the material selected. [illustration: fig. 1.] the wire-netting used may be of almost any sized mesh, according to the sized birds to be kept, but as a general rule the smallest mesh, such as half or five-eighths of an inch, should be used, as it is practically vermin-proof, and allows of birds of any size being kept. wire-netting for aviaries should be of the best quality, and well galvanized. the new interlinked type is less durable than the old mesh type, though perhaps it looks somewhat neater when fixed. provision must be made for the entire exclusion of such vermin as rats, stoats and weasels, which, if they were to gain access, would commit great havoc amongst the birds. the simplest and most effectual method of doing this is by sinking the wire-netting some 2 ft. into the ground all round the aviary, and then turning it outwards for a distance of another foot as shown in the annexed cut (fig. 1). the outer part of the aviary should be turfed and planted with evergreen and deciduous shrubs, and be provided with some means of supplying an abundance of pure water for the birds to drink and bathe in; a gravel path should not be forgotten. perhaps the most useful type of aviary is that built as above described, but with several compartments, and a passage at the back by which any compartment may be visited without the necessity of passing through and disturbing the birds in other compartments. fig. 2 represents a ground plan of an aviary of this type divided into four compartments, each with an inner house 10 ft. square, and an outer flight of double that area. the outer flights are intended to be turfed, and planted with shrubs, and the gravel path has a glazed roof above it by which it is kept dry in wet weather. shallow water-basins are shown, which should be supplied by means of an underground pipe and a cock which can be turned on from outside the aviary; and they must be connected with a properly laid drain by means of a waste plug and an overflow pipe. [illustration: fig. 2.--plan of 4-compartment aviary for foreign birds.] an aviary should always be built with a southern or southeastern aspect, and, where possible, should be sheltered from the north, north-east and north-west by a belt of fir-trees, high wall or bank, to protect the birds from the biting winds from these quarters. when parrots of any kind are to be kept it is useless to try [v.03 p.0061] to grow any kind of vegetation except grass, and even this will be demolished unless the aviary is of considerable size. the larger parrots will, in fact, bite to pieces not only living trees but also the woodwork of their abode, and the only really suitable materials for the construction of an aviary for these birds are brick or stone and iron; and the wire-netting used must be of the stoutest gauge or it will be torn to pieces by their strong bills. the feeding of birds in aviaries is, obviously, a matter of the utmost importance, and, in order that they may have what is most suitable, the aviculturist should find out as much as possible of the wild life of the species he wishes to keep, or if little or nothing is known about their mode of living, as is often the case with rare forms, of nearly related species whose habits and food are probably much the same, and he should endeavour to provide food as nearly as possible resembling that which would be obtained by the birds when wild. it is often, however, impossible to supply precisely the same food as would be obtained by the birds had they their liberty, but a substitute which suits them well can generally be obtained. the majority of the parrot tribe subsist principally upon various nuts, seed and fruit, while some of the smaller parrakeets or paroquets appear to feed almost exclusively upon the seeds of various grasses. almost all of these are comparatively easy to treat in captivity, the larger ones being fed on maize, sunflower-seed, hemp, dari, oats, canary-seed, nuts and various ripe fruits, while the grass-parrakeets thrive remarkably well on little besides canary-seed and green food, the most suitable of which is grass in flower, chickweed, groundsel and various seed-bearing weeds. but there is another large group of parrots, the _loriidae_ or brush-tongued parrots, some of the most interesting and brightly coloured of the tribe, which, when wild, subsist principally upon the pollen and nectar of flowers, notably the various species of _eucalyptus_, the filamented tongues of these parrots being peculiarly adapted for obtaining this. in captivity these birds have been found to live well upon sweetened milk-sop, which is made by pouring boiling milk upon crumbled bread or biscuit. they frequently learn to eat seed like other parrots, but, if fed exclusively upon this, are apt, especially if deprived of abundance of exercise, to suffer from fits which are usually fatal. fruit is also readily eaten by the lories and lorikeets, and should always be supplied. the foreign doves and pigeons form a numerous and beautiful group which are mostly hardy and easily kept and bred in captivity. they are for the most part grain-feeders and require only small corn and seeds, though a certain group, known as the fruit-pigeons, are fed in captivity upon soft fruits, berries, boiled potato and soaked grain. the various finches and finch-like birds form an exceedingly large group and comprise perhaps the most popular of foreign aviary birds. the weaver-birds of africa are mostly quite hardy and very easily kept, their food consisting, for the most part, of canary-seed. the males of these birds are, as a rule, gorgeously attired in brilliant colours, some having long flowing tail-feathers during the nuptial season, while in the winter their showy dress is replaced by one of sparrow-like sombreness. the grass-finches of australasia contain some of the most brilliantly coloured birds, the beautiful grass-finch (_poephila mirabilis_) being resplendent in crimson, green, mauve, blue and yellow. most of these birds build their nests, and many rear their young, successfully in outdoor aviaries, their food consisting of canary and millet seeds, while flowering grasses provide them with an endless source of pleasure and wholesome food. the same treatment suits the african waxbills, many of which are extremely beautiful, the crimson-eared waxbill or "cordon-bleu" being one of the most lovely and frequently imported. these little birds are somewhat delicate, especially when first imported, and during the winter months require artificial warmth. there is a very large group of insectivorous and fruit-eating birds very suitable for aviculture, but their mode of living necessarily involves considerable care on the part of the aviculturist in the preparation of their food. many birds are partially insectivorous, feeding upon insects when these are plentiful, and upon various seeds at other times. numbers of species again which, when adult, feed almost entirely upon grain, feed their young, especially during the early stages of their existence, upon insects; while others are exclusively insect-eaters at all times of their lives. all of these points must be considered by those who would succeed in keeping and breeding birds in aviaries. it would be almost an impossibility to keep the purely insectivorous species, were it not for the fact that they can be gradually accustomed to feed on what is known as "insectivorous" or "insectile" food, a composition of which the principal ingredients generally consist of dried ants' cocoons, dried flies, dried powdered meat, preserved yolk of egg,[1] and crumb of bread or biscuit. this is moistened with water or mixed with mashed boiled potato, and forms a diet upon which most of the insectivorous birds thrive. the various ingredients, or the food ready made, can be obtained at almost any bird-fancier's shop. although it is a good staple diet for these birds, the addition of mealworms, caterpillars, grubs, spiders and so forth is often a necessity, especially for purely insectivorous species. the fruit-eating species, such as the tanagers and sugar-birds of the new world, require ripe fruit in abundance in addition to a staple diet such as that above described, while for such birds as feed largely upon earth-worms, shredded raw meat is added with advantage. many of the waders make very interesting aviary birds, and require a diet similar to that above recommended, with the addition of chopped raw meat, mealworms and any insects that can be obtained. birds of prey naturally require a meat diet, which is best given in the form of small, freshly killed mammals and birds, the fur or feathers of which should not be removed, as they aid digestion. the majority of wild birds, from whatever part of the world they may come, will breed successfully in suitable aviaries providing proper nesting sites are available. large bundles of brushwood, fixed up in sheltered spots, will afford accommodation for many kinds of birds, while some will readily build in evergreen shrubs if these are grown in their enclosure. small boxes and baskets, securely fastened to the wall or roof of the [v.03 p.0062] sheltered part of an aviary, will be appropriated by such species as naturally build in holes and crevices. parrots, when wild, lay their eggs in hollow trees, and occasionally in holes in rocks, making no nest,[2] but merely scraping out a slight hollow in which to deposit the eggs. for these birds hollow logs, with small entrance holes near the top, or boxes, varying in size according to the size of the parrots which they are intended for, should be supplied. in providing nesting accommodation for his birds the aviculturist must endeavour to imitate their natural surroundings and supply sites as nearly as possible similar to those which the birds, to whatever order they may belong, would naturally select. aviculture is a delightful pastime, but it is also far more than this; it is of considerable scientific importance, for it admits of the living birds being studied in a way that would be quite impossible otherwise. there are hundreds of species of birds, from all parts of the world, the habits of which are almost unknown, but which may be kept without difficulty in suitable aviaries. many of these birds cannot be studied satisfactorily in a wild state by reason of their shy nature and retiring habits, not to mention their rarity and the impossibility, so far as most people are concerned, of visiting their native haunts. in suitable large aviaries, however, their nesting habits, courtship, display, incubation, moult and so forth can be accurately observed and recorded. the keeping of birds in aviaries is therefore a practice worthy of every encouragement, so long as the aviaries are of sufficient size and suitable design to allow of the birds exhibiting their natural habits; for in a large aviary they will reveal the secrets of their nature as they never would do in a cage or small aviary. (d. s.-s.) [1] it has recently been stated by certain medical men that egg-food in any form is an undesirable diet for birds, owing to its being peculiarly adapted to the multiplication of the bacillus of septicaemia, a disease which is responsible for the death of many newly imported birds. it is a significant fact, however, that insectivorous species, which are those principally fed upon this substance, are not nearly so susceptible to this disease as seed-eating birds which rarely taste egg; and in spite of what has been written concerning its harmfulness, the large majority of aviculturists use it, in both the fresh and the preserved state, with no apparent ill effects, but rather the reverse. [2] there is, however, one true nest-building parrot, the grey-breasted parrakeet (_myopsittacus monachus_), which constructs a huge nest of twigs. the true love-birds (_agapornis_) may also be said to build nests, for they line their nest-hole with strips of pliant bark. avicenna [ab[=u] 'al[=i] al-husain ibn 'abdall[=a]h ibn s[=i]n[=a]] (980-1037), arabian philosopher, was born at afshena in the district of bokhara. his mother was a native of the place; his father, a persian from balkh, filled the post of tax-collector in the neighbouring town of harmaitin, under n[=u]h ii. ibn mansur, the samanid amir of bokhara. on the birth of avicenna's younger brother the family migrated to bokhara, then one of the chief cities of the moslem world, and famous for a culture which was older than its conquest by the saracens. avicenna was put in charge of a tutor, and his precocity soon made him the marvel of his neighbours,--as a boy of ten who knew by rote the koran and much arabic poetry besides. from a greengrocer he learnt arithmetic; and higher branches were begun under one of those wandering scholars who gained a livelihood by cures for the sick and lessons for the young. under him avicenna read the _isagoge_ of porphyry and the first propositions of euclid. but the pupil soon found his teacher to be but a charlatan, and betook himself, aided by commentaries, to master logic, geometry and the almagest. before he was sixteen he not merely knew medical theory, but by gratuitous attendance on the sick had, according to his own account, discovered new methods of treatment. for the next year and a half he worked at the higher philosophy, in which he encountered greater obstacles. in such moments of baffled inquiry he would leave his books, perform the requisite ablutions, then hie to the mosque, and continue in prayer till light broke on his difficulties. deep into the night he would continue his studies, stimulating his senses by occasional cups of wine, and even in his dreams problems would pursue him and work out their solution. forty times, it is said, he read through the _metaphysics_ of aristotle, till the words were imprinted on his memory; but their meaning was hopelessly obscure, until one day they found illumination from the little commentary by f[=a]r[=a]b[=i] (_q.v._), which he bought at a bookstall for the small sum of three dirhems. so great was his joy at the discovery, thus made by help of a work from which he had expected only mystery, that he hastened to return thanks to god, and bestowed an alms upon the poor. thus, by the end of his seventeenth year his apprenticeship of study was concluded, and he went forth to find a market for his accomplishments. his first appointment was that of physician to the amir, who owed him his recovery from a dangerous illness (997). avicenna's chief reward for this service was access to the royal library of the samanids (_q.v._), well-known patrons of scholarship and scholars. when the library was destroyed by fire not long after, the enemies of avicenna accused him of burning it, in order for ever to conceal the sources of his knowledge. meanwhile, he assisted his father in his financial labours, but still found time to write some of his earliest works. at the age of twenty-two avicenna lost his father. the samanid dynasty came to its end in december 1004. avicenna seems to have declined the offers of mahm[=u]d the ghaznevid, and proceeded westwards to urjensh in the modern khiva, where the vizier, regarded as a friend of scholars, gave him a small monthly stipend. but the pay was small, and avicenna wandered from place to place through the districts of nishapur and merv to the borders of khorasan, seeking an opening for his talents. shams al-ma'[=a]l[=i] q[=a]b[=u]s, the generous ruler of dailam, himself a poet and a scholar, with whom he had expected to find an asylum, was about that date (1012) starved to death by his own revolted soldiery. avicenna himself was at this season stricken down by a severe illness. finally, at jorj[=a]n, near the caspian, he met with a friend, who bought near his own house a dwelling in which avicenna lectured on logic and astronomy. for this patron several of his treatises were written; and the commencement of his _canon of medicine_ also dates from his stay in hyrcania. he subsequently settled at rai, in the vicinity of the modern teheran, where a son of the last amir, majd addaula, was nominal ruler, under the regency of his mother. at rai about thirty of his shorter works are said to have been composed. but the constant feuds which raged between the regent and her second son, shams addaula, compelled the scholar to quit the place, and after a brief sojourn at kazw[=i]n, he passed southwards to hamad[=a]n, where that prince had established himself. at first he entered into the service of a high-born lady; but ere long the amir, hearing of his arrival, called him in as medical attendant, and sent him back with presents to his dwelling. avicenna was even raised to the office of vizier; but the turbulent soldiery, composed of kurds and turks, mutinied against their nominal sovereign, and demanded that the new vizier should be put to death. shams addaula consented that he should be banished from the country. avicenna, however, remained hidden for forty days in a sheik's house, till a fresh attack of illness induced the amir to restore him to his post. even during this perturbed time he prosecuted his studies and teaching. every evening extracts from his great works, the _canon_ and the _sanatio_, were dictated and explained to his pupils; among whom, when the lesson was over, he spent the rest of the night in festive enjoyment with a band of singers and players. on the death of the amir avicenna ceased to be vizier, and hid himself in the house of an apothecary, where, with intense assiduity, he continued the composition of his works. meanwhile, he had written to abu ya'far, the prefect of isfahan, offering his services; but the new amir of hamad[=a]n getting to hear of this correspondence, and discovering the place of avicenna's concealment, incarcerated him in a fortress. war meanwhile continued between the rulers of isfahan and hamad[=a]n; in 1024 the former captured hamad[=a]n and its towns, and expelled the turkish mercenaries. when the storm had passed avicenna returned with the amir to hamad[=a]n, and carried on his literary labours; but at length, accompanied by his brother, a favourite pupil, and two slaves, made his escape out of the city in the dress of a sufite ascetic. after a perilous journey they reached isfahan, and received an honourable welcome from the prince. the remaining ten or twelve years of avicenna's life were spent in the service of abu ya'far 'al[=a] addaula, whom he accompanied as physician and general literary and scientific adviser, even in his numerous campaigns. during these years he began to study literary matters and philology, instigated, it is asserted, by [v.03 p.0063] criticisms on his style. but amid his restless study avicenna never forgot his love of enjoyment. unusual bodily vigour enabled him to combine severe devotion to work with facile indulgence in sensual pleasures. his passion for wine and women was almost as well known as his learning. versatile, light-hearted, boastful and pleasure-loving, he contrasts with the nobler and more intellectual character of averroes. his bouts of pleasure gradually weakened his constitution; a severe colic, which seized him on the march of the army against hamad[=a]n, was checked by remedies so violent that avicenna could scarcely stand. on a similar occasion the disease returned; with difficulty he reached hamad[=a]n, where, finding the disease gaining ground, he refused to keep up the regimen imposed, and resigned himself to his fate. on his deathbed remorse seized him; he bestowed his goods on the poor, restored unjust gains, freed his slaves, and every third day till his death listened to the reading of the koran. he died in june 1037, in his fifty-eighth year, and was buried in hamad[=a]n. it was mainly accident which determined that from the 12th to the 17th century avicenna should be the guide of medical study in european universities, and eclipse the names of rhazes, ali ibn al-abbas and avenzoar. his work is not essentially different from that of his predecessors rhazes and ali; all present the doctrine of galen, and through galen the doctrine of hippocrates, modified by the system of aristotle. but the _canon_ of avicenna is distinguished from the _al-hawi_ (_continens_) or _summary_ of rhazes by its greater method, due perhaps to the logical studies of the former, and entitling him to his surname of prince of the physicians. the work has been variously appreciated in subsequent ages, some regarding it as a treasury of wisdom, and others, like avenzoar, holding it useful only as waste paper. in modern times it has been more criticized than read. the vice of the book is excessive classification of bodily faculties, and over-subtlety in the discrimination of diseases. it includes five books; of which the first and second treat of physiology, pathology and hygiene, the third and fourth deal with the methods of treating disease, and the fifth describes the composition and preparation of remedies. this last part contains some contingent of personal observation. he is, like all his countrymen, ample in the enumeration of symptoms, and is said to be inferior to ali in practical medicine and surgery. he introduced into medical theory the four causes of the peripatetic system. of natural history and botany he pretends to no special knowledge. up to the year 1650, or thereabouts, the _canon_ was still used as a text-book in the universities of louvain and montpellier. about 100 treatises are ascribed to avicenna. some of them are tracts of a few pages, others are works extending through several volumes. the best-known amongst them, and that to which avicenna owed his european reputation, is the _canon of medicine_; an arabic edition of it appeared at rome in 1593, and a hebrew version at naples in 1491. of the latin version there were about thirty editions, founded on the original translation by gerard of cremona. the 15th century has the honour of composing the great commentary on the text of the _canon_, grouping around it all that theory had imagined, and all that practice had observed. other medical works translated into latin are the _medicamenta cordialia_, _canticum de medicina_, _tractatus de syrupo acetoso_. scarcely any member of the arabian circle of the sciences, including theology, philology, mathematics, astronomy, physics and music, was left untouched by the treatises of avicenna, many of which probably varied little, except in being commissioned by a different patron and having a different form or extent. he wrote at least one treatise on alchemy, but several others have been falsely attributed to him. his book on animals was translated by michael scot. his _logic_, _metaphysics_, _physics_, _de caelo_, are treatises giving a synoptic view of aristotelian doctrine. the _logic_ and _metaphysics_ have been printed more than once, the latter, _e.g._, at venice in 1493, 1495 and 1546. some of his shorter essays on medicine, logic, &c., take a poetical form (the poem on logic was published by schmoelders in 1836). two encyclopaedic treatises, dealing with philosophy, are often mentioned. the larger, _al-shif[=a]'_ (_sanatio_), exists nearly complete in manuscript in the bodleian library and elsewhere; part of it on the _de anima_ appeared at pavia (1490) as the _liber sextus naturalium_, and the long account of avicenna's philosophy given by shahrastani seems to be mainly an analysis, and in many places a reproduction, of the _al-shif[=a]'_, a shorter form of the work is known as the _an-naj[=a]t_ (_liberatio_). the latin editions of part of these works have been modified by the corrections which the monkish editors confess that they applied. there is also a _philosophia orientalis_, mentioned by roger bacon, and now lost, which according to averroes was pantheistic in tone. for avicenna's life, see ibn khallikan's _biographical dictionary_, translated by mcg. de slane (1842); f. wuestenfeld's _geschichte der arabischen aerzte und naturforscher_ (goettingen, 1840). for his medicine, see sprengel, _histoire de la medecine_; and for his philosophy, see shahrastani, german trans. vol. ii. 213-332; k. prantl, _geschichte der logik_, ii. 318-361; a. stoeckl, _phil. d. mittelalters_, ii. 23-58; s. munk, _melanges_, 352-366; b. haneberg in the _abhandlungen der philos.-philolog. class. der bayerischen academie_ (1867); and carra de vaux, _avicenne_ (paris, 1900). for list of extant works see c. brockelmann's _geschichte der arabischen litteratur_ (weimar, 1898), vol. i. pp. 452-458. (w. w.; g. w. t.)