ARTS AND CRAFTS

arts and crafts, a comprehensive title for the arts of decorative design and handicraft--all those which, in association with the mother-craft of building (or architecture), go to the making of the house beautiful. accounts of these will be found under separate headings. "arts and crafts" are also associated with the movement generally understood as the english revival of decorative art, which began about 1875. the title itself only came into general use when the arts and crafts exhibition society was founded, and held its first exhibition at the new gallery, london, in the autumn of 1888, since which time arts and crafts exhibitions have been common all over great britain. the idea of forming a society for the purpose of showing contemporary work in design and handicraft really arose out of a movement of revolt or protest against the exclusive view of art encouraged by the royal academy exhibitions, in which oil paintings in gilt frames claimed almost exclusive attention--sculpture, architecture and the arts of decorative design being relegated to quite subordinate positions. in 1886, out of a feeling of discontent among artists as to the inadequacy of the royal academy exhibitions, considered as representing the art of great britain, a demand arose for a national exhibition to include all the arts of design. one of the points of this demand was for the annual election of the hanging committee by the whole body of artists. after many meetings the group representing the arts and crafts (who belonged to a larger body of artists and craftsmen called the art-workers' guild, founded in 1884),[1] perceiving that the painters, especially the leading group of a school not hitherto well represented in the academy exhibitions, only cherished the hope of forcing certain reforms on the academy, and were by no means prepared to lose their chances of admission to its privileges, still less to run any risk in the establishment of a really comprehensive national exhibition of art, decided to organize an exhibition themselves in which artists and craftsmen might show their productions, so that contemporary work in decorative art should be displayed to the public on the same footing, and with the same advantages as had hitherto been monopolized by pictorial art. for many years previously there had been great activity in the study and revival in the practice of many of the neglected decorative handicrafts. amateur societies and classes were in existence, like the home arts and industries association, which had established village classes in wood-carving, metal work, spinning and weaving, needlework, pottery and basket-work, and the public interest in handicraft was steadily growing. the machine production of an industrial century had laid its iron hands upon what had formerly been the exclusive province of the handicraftsman, who only lingered on in a few obscure trades and in forgotten corners of england for the most part. the ideal of mechanical perfection dominated british workmen, and the factory system, first by extreme division of labour, and then by the further specialization of the workman under machine production, left no room for individual artistic feeling among craftsmen trained and working under such conditions. the demand of the world-market ruled the character and quality of production, and to the few who would seek some humanity, simplicity of construction or artistic feeling in their domestic decorations and furniture, the only choice was that of the tradesman or salesman, or a plunge into costly and doubtful experiments in original design. from the 'forties onward there had been much research and study of medieval art in england; there had been many able designers, architects and antiquaries, such as the pugins and henry shaw (1800-1873) and later william burges (1827-1881), william butterfield (1814-1900) and g.e. street and others. the school of pre-raphaelite painters, by their careful and thorough methods, and their sympathy with medieval design, were among the first to turn attention to beauty of design, colour and significance in the accessories of daily life, and artists like d.g. rossetti, ford madox brown, and w. holman hunt themselves designed and painted furniture. the most successful and most practical effort indeed towards the revival of sounder ideas of construction and workmanship may be said to have arisen out of the work of this group of artists, and may be traced to the workshop of william morris and his associates in queen square, london. william morris, whose name covers so large a field of artistic as well as literary and social work, came well equipped to his task of raising the arts of design and handicraft, of changing the taste of his countrymen from the corrupt and vulgar ostentation of the second empire, and its cheap imitations, which prevailed in the 'fifties and 'sixties, and of winning them back, for a time at least, to the massive simplicity of plain oak furniture, or the delicate beauty of inlays of choice woods, or the charm of painted work, the richness and frank colour of formal floral and heraldic pattern in silk textiles and wall-hangings and carpets, the gaiety and freshness of printed cotton, or the romantic splendour of arras tapestry. both william morris and his artistic comrade and lifelong friend, edward burne-jones, were no doubt much influenced at the outset by the imaginative insight, the passionate artistic feeling, and the love of medieval romance and colour of dante gabriel rossetti, who remains so remarkable a figure in the great artistic and poetic revival of the latter half of the 19th century. to william morris himself, in his artistic career, it was no small advantage to gain the ear of the english public first by his poetry. his verse-craft helped his handicraft, but both lived side by side. the secret of morris's great influence in the revival was no doubt to be attributed to his way of personally mastering the working details and handling of each craft he took up in turn, as well as to his power of inspiring his helpers and followers. he was painter, designer, scribe, illuminator, wood-engraver, dyer, weaver and finally printer and papermaker, and having mastered these crafts he could effectively direct and criticize the work of others. his own work and that of burne-jones were well known to the public, and in high favour long before the arts and crafts exhibition society was formed, and though largely helped and inspired by the work of these two artists, the aims and objects of the society rather represented those of a younger generation, and were in some measure a fresh development both of the social and the artistic ideas which were represented by ruskin, rossetti and morris, though the society includes men of different schools. other sources of influence might be named, such as the work of norman shaw and philip webb in architecture and decoration, of lewis day in surface pattern, and william de morgan in pottery. the demand for the acknowledgment of the personality of each responsible craftsman in a co-operative work was new, and it had direct bearing upon the social and economic conditions of artistic production. the principle, too, of regarding the material, object, method and purpose of a work as essential conditions of its artistic expression, the form and character of which must always be controlled by such conditions, had never before been so emphatically stated, though it practically endorsed the somewhat vague aspirations current for the unity of beauty with utility. again, a very notable return to extreme simplicity of design in furniture and surface decoration may be remarked; and a certain reserve in the use of colour and ornament, and a love of abstract forms in decoration generally, which are characteristic of later taste. not less remarkable has been the new development in the design and workmanship of jewelry, gold- and silversmiths' work, and enamels, with which the names of alexander fisher, henry wilson, nelson dawson and c.r. ashbee are associated. among the arts and crafts of design which have blossomed into new life in recent years-and there is hardly one which has not been touched by the new spirit--book-binding must be named as having attained a fresh and tasteful development through the work of mr cobden-sanderson and his pupils. the art and craft of the needle also must not be forgotten, and its progress is a good criterion of taste in design, choice of colour and treatment. the work of mrs morris, of miss burden (sometime instructress at the royal school of art needlework, which has carried on its work from 1875), of miss may morris, of miss una taylor, of miss buckle, of mrs walter crane, of mrs newbery, besides many other skilled needlewomen, has been frequently exhibited. good work is often seen in the national competition works of the students of the english art schools, shown at south kensington in july. the increase of late years in these exhibitions of designs worked out in the actual material for which they were intended is very remarkable, and is an evidence of the spread of the arts and crafts movement (fostered no doubt by the increase of technical schools, especially of the type of the central school of arts and crafts under the technical education board of the london county council), of which it may be said that if it has not turned all british craftsmen into artists or all british artists into craftsmen, it had done not a little to expand and socialize the idea of art, and (perhaps it is not too much to say) has made the tasteful english house with its furniture and decorations a model for the civilized world. (w. cr.) footnote: [1] whose members, comprehending as they do the principal living designers, architects, painters and craftsmen of all kinds, have played no inconsiderable part in the english revival. art societies. in banding themselves into societies and associations artists have always been especially remarkable. the fundamental motive of such leaguing together is apparent, for, by the establishment of societies, it becomes possible for the working members of these to hold exhibitions and thereby to obtain some compensation or reward for their labours. with the growth of artistic practice and public interest, however, art societies have been instituted where this primary object is either absent or is allied to others of more general scope. the furtherance of a cult and the specializing of work have also given rise to many new associations in great britain, besides the royal academy (see academy, royal). at the outset, therefore, it will be well to mention the leading art societies thus described. the (now royal) society of painters in water colours, founded in 1804, and the (now royal) society of british artists (1823), are typical of those societies which exist merely for purposes of holding exhibitions and conferring diplomas of membership. the british institution (for the encouragement of british artists) was started in 1806 on a plan formed by sir thomas bernard; and in the gallery, erected by alderman boydell to exhibit the paintings executed for his edition of shakespeare, were from time to time exhibited pictures by the old masters, deceased british artists and others, till 1867, when the lease of the premises expired. a fund of l16,200, then in the hands of trustees, had accumulated to l24,610 in 1884. the artists' society, formed in 1830, has for its object the providing of facilities to enable its members to perfect themselves in their art. to this end there is a good library of works on art, and abundant opportunities are afforded for general study from the life. in the furtherance of a cult the japan society, devoted to the encouragement of the study of the arts and industries of japan, is a typical example; and the society of mezzotint engravers is representative of those bodies formed in the interests of particular groups of workers. one of the remarkable features in the history of art in great britain has been the rapid increase of the artistic rank and file. taking the number of exhibitors at the principal london and provincial exhibitions, it is found that in the period 1885-1900 the ranks were doubled. at the end of the 19th century it was estimated that there were quite 7000 practising artists. coincident with this astonishing development there has been a corresponding addition of new art societies and the enlargement of older bodies. for instance, the membership of the royal society of british artists advanced in the period mentioned from 80 to 150. similar extensions can be noted in other societies, or in such a case as that of the royal institute of painters in water colours, where the membership is limited to 100, it is to be noticed that more space is given to the works of outsiders. but the expansion of older exhibiting societies has not proved sufficient. portrait painters, pastellists, designers, miniaturists and women artists have felt the necessity of forming separate coteries. interesting though these movements from within may be, the growth of societies originating in the spirit of altruism associated with such names as ruskin and kyrle is equally instructive. nearly all these are the products of the last quarter of the 19th century, and include the sunday society, which in 1896 secured the sunday opening of the national museums and galleries in the metropolis. the specializing of study and work has also given rise to much artistic endeavour. for a long time archaeology--british and egyptian--claimed almost exclusive attention. latterly the arts of india and japan have engaged much notice, and societies have been organized to further their study. finally, bands of workers in particular branches of art have felt the need of clubbing together in order to protect their special interests. a slight suspicion of trade-unionism is attached to some of these; but on the whole the establishment of such bodies as the society of illustrators, the society of designers, and the society of mezzotint engravers has been with a view to advancing the public knowledge of the merits of these branches of artistic enterprise. exhibiting societies.--(a) old established. these in london are: the royal academy, the royal water colour society, the royal institute of painters in water colours, the society of oil painters, and the royal society of british artists. in the provinces, the birmingham royal society of artists has been in existence since 1825, and has a life academy with professors attached. (b) modern.--in this category are many which reflect the new spirit which came into artistic life in the last quarter of the 19th century. the new english art club, founded in 1885 as a protest against academic art, achieves its purpose by exhibition only. the international society of painters and engravers, again, represents the wider ideas of the 20th century. the royal society of painter-etchers and engravers, consisting of fellows and associates, not exceeding 150 in all, conserves the interests of a numerous body of workers, and, in addition to holding exhibitions, confers diplomas (r.e. and a.r.e.) on the exhibitors of meritorious etchings or engravings. the society of women artists (formerly the society of lady artists) is wholly devoted to the display of works by female artists, and in 1891 the society of portrait painters was formed to carry out the object conveyed in its title. two associations advance the art of the miniature-painter, and the pastel society, formed in 1898, holds displays of members' work at the royal institute galleries. in scotland there is the royal scottish academy. the royal scottish society of painters in water colours (glasgow) grants the title r.s.w. to its members, and the society of scottish artists (edinburgh), founded in 1891, has a membership of nearly 500 young artists. other exhibiting societies which call for mention are: the yorkshire union of artists (leeds), which consolidates many local societies; the nottingham society of artists, which also encourages drawing from the living model; and the liverpool sketching club, founded in 1870, which holds an annual exhibition. societies of instruction and popular encouragement.--it is under this head that the chief evidence of the modern art revival will be found. first it should be noted that there are very few societies designed for the artistic improvement of artists. the artists' society has already been mentioned; and the art workers' guild, which meets at clifford's inn hall, provides meetings, from which the public is excluded, where profitable discussions take place on questions of craft and design. but, as a rule, the art society, of which only artists are members, is organized for exhibition purposes or for the protection of interests. with regard to those societies of popular and educational intention the old society of arts in the adelphi, founded in 1754, enjoys a good record. numerous lectures on art subjects have from time to time been given, and in 1887 a scheme was devised by which awards are made to student-workers in design. the society for the encouragement of the fine arts (conduit street) has also laboured since its foundation in 1858 to increase a technical knowledge, its members holding conversazioni at various picture galleries. the artists' and amateurs' conversazione, instituted in 1831, which used to meet at the piccadilly galleries and is now defunct, carried out a similar plan. two other societies, now obsolete, should be mentioned whose method were directly educational. the arundel society, which for many years promoted the knowledge of art by copying and publishing important works of ancient masters, issued to its members on payment of annual subscriptions, was eventually wound up on the last day of 1897. the arundel club, founded in 1904, continues the aim, but with a wider scope, reproducing works of art rendered somewhat inaccessible by being in private collections. the international chalcographical society, formed for the study of the early history of engraving, also did useful work. another association of painters, sculptors, architects and engravers, the graphic society, ceased on the 29th of october 1890. this was one of the most interesting of societies, rare works of art being exhibited and discussed at its meetings. a very active educational body, originated in 1888, namely the royal drawing society, has for its definite object the teaching of drawing as a means of education. the methods of instruction are based on the facts that very young children try to draw before they can write, and that they have very keen perception and retentive memory. the society aims, therefore, at using drawing as a means of developing these innate characteristics of the young, and already nearly 300 important schools follow out its system. lord leighton, sir john millais, and sir edward burne-jones took an active part in the society's labours. the art for schools association, founded in 1883, has also done steady work in endeavouring to provide schools with works of art. these are chiefly reproductions of standard works of art or of historical and natural subjects. the wave of enthusiasm aroused by mr ruskin's teachings caused societies of the rose to be founded in london, manchester, sheffield, birmingham, aberdeen and glasgow; but some of these eventually ceased active work, to be revived again, however, by the ruskin union, formed in the year of the great writer's death (1900). most of these societies were formed in 1879; but it should not be forgotten that two years earlier the kyrle society was started with the object of bringing the refining and cheering influences of natural and artistic beauty to the homes of the people. under the presidency of earl brownlow, the home arts and industries association continues a work which was started in 1884, and anticipated much of the present system of technical education. voluntary teachers organize classes for working people, at which a practical knowledge of art handiwork is taught. training classes for voluntary teachers are held at the studios at the albert hall, as well as an annual exhibition. an interesting type of society has been established in bolton, lancashire. under the title of an arts guild the members, numbering over 200, devote themselves to the advancement of taste in municipal improvements.