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    "source_title": "Encyclopaedia Britannica (1911)",
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    "chunk_id": "1911:arria:df3eea8f6310",
    "title": "ARRIA",
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    "verified_text": "arria, in roman history, the heroic wife of caecina paetus. when her husband was implicated in the conspiracy of scribonianus against the emperor claudius (a.d. 42), and condemned to death, she resolved not to survive him. she accordingly stabbed herself with a dagger, which she then handed to him with the words, \"paetus, it does not hurt\" (_paete, non dolet_; see pliny, _epp._ iii. 16; martial i. 14; dio cassius lx. 16). her daughter, also called arria, was the wife of thrasea paetus. when he was condemned to death by nero, she would have imitated her mother's example, but was dissuaded by her husband, who entreated her to live for the sake of their children. she was sent into banishment (tacitus, _annals_, xvi. 34). arrian (flavius arrianus), of nicomedia in bithynia, greek historian and philosopher, was born about a.d. 96, and lived during the reigns of hadrian, antoninus pius and marcus aurelius. in recognition of his abilities, he received the citizenship of both athens and rome. he was greatly esteemed by hadrian, who appointed him governor (_legatus_) of cappadocia (131-137), in which capacity he distinguished himself in a campaign against the alani. this is the only instance before the 3rd century in which a first-rate roman military command was given to a greek. arrian spent a considerable portion of his time at athens, where he was archon 147-148. with his retirement or recall from cappadocia his official career came to an end. in his declining years, he retired to his native place, where he devoted himself to literary work. he died about 180. his biography, by dio cassius, is lost. when young, arrian was the pupil and friend of epictetus, who had probably withdrawn to nicopolis, when domitian expelled all philosophers from rome. he took verbatim notes of his teacher's lectures, which he subsequently published under the title of _the dissertations_ ([greek: diatribai]), in eight books, of which the first four are extant and constitute the chief authority for stoic ethics, and _the encheiridion_ (i.e. manual) _of epictetus_, a handbook of moral philosophy, for many years a favourite instruction book with both christians and pagans. it was adapted for christian use by st nilus of constantinople (5th century), and simplicius (about 550) wrote a commentary on it which we still possess. the most important of arrian's original works is his _anabasis of alexander_, in seven books, containing the history of alexander the great from his accession to his death. arrian's chief authorities were, as he tells us, aristobulus of cassandreia and ptolemy, son of lagus (afterwards king of egypt), who both accompanied alexander on his campaigns. in spite of a too indulgent view of his hero's defects, and some over-credulity, arrian's is the most complete and trustworthy account of alexander that we possess. other extant works of arrian are: _indica_, a description of india in the ionic dialect, including the voyage of nearchus, intended as a supplement to the _anabasis; acies contra alanos_, a fragment of importance for the knowledge of roman military affairs; _periplus of the euxine_, an official account written (131) for the emperor hadrian; _tactica_, attributed by some to aelianus, who wrote in the reign of trajan; _cynegeticus_, a treatise on the chase, supplementing xenophon's work on the same subject; the _periplus of the erythraean sea_, attributed to him, is by a later compiler. amongst his lost works may be mentioned: [greek: ta mer alexandron], a history of the period succeeding alexander, of which an epitome is preserved in photius; histories of bithynia, the alani and the parthian wars under trajan; the lives of timoleon of syracuse, dion of syracuse and a famous brigand named timoleon. arrian's style is simple, lucid and manly; but his language, though pure, presents some peculiarities. he was called \"xenophon the younger\" from his imitation of that writer, and he even speaks of himself as xenophon. complete works ed. f. dubner (1846); _anabasis_, c. abicht (1889); with notes, c.w. kniger (1835), c. sintenis (1867) c. abicht (1875); _scripta minora_, r. hercher and a. eberhard (1885), a.j. roos, i., containing the _anabasis_ (teubner series, 1907). english translations _anabasis_, rooke (1812), _anabasis_ and _indica_, e.j. chinnock (1893); _voyage of nearchus_ with the spurious _periplus_, w. vincent (1807), j.w. m'crindle (calcutta, 1879), _periplus of the euxine_, w. falconer (1805), cynegettcus [w. dansey] (1831). see also e. bolla, _arriano di nicomedia_ (1890); e. schwartz in pauly-wissowa's _realencyclopadie der classischen altertumswissenschaft_ (1896), h.f. pelham, \"arrian as legate of cappadocia,\" in _english historical review_, october 1896; article greece: _history, ancient_, \"authorities.\" arris (fr. _areste_, or _arete_), in architecture, the sharp edge or angle in which two sides or surfaces meet. arrondissement (from _arrondir_, to make round), an administrative subdivision of a department in france. dating nominally from 1800, the arrondissement was really a re-creation of the \"district\" of 1790. it comprises within itself the canton and the commune. it differs from the department and from the commune in being merely an administrative division and not a complete legal personality with power to acquire and possess. the purposes for which it exists are, again, unlike those of the department and the commune, comparatively limited. it is the electoral district for the chamber of deputies, each arrondissement returning one member; if the population is in excess of 100,000 it is divided into two or more constituencies. it is also a judicial district having a court of first instance. it is under the control of a sub-prefect. there are 362 arrondissements in the 87 departments. each arrondissement has a council, with as many members as there are cantons, whose function is to subdivide among the communes their _quota_ of the direct taxes charged to the arrondissement by the general council of the department. (see france) somewhat different from the arrondissements of the department are the arrondissements (20 in number) into which paris is divided. they bear a certain resemblance to the sub-municipalities created in london by the london government act 1899, and each forms a local administrative unit (see paris). france is also subdivided, for purposes of defence, into five _maritime_ divisions, termed arrondissements. instituted originally under the consulate, they were suppressed in 1815, but re-established again in 1826. they are under the direction of maritime prefects, who, by a decree of 1875, must be vice-admirals in the navy. arrowroot. a large proportion of the edible starches obtained from the rhizomes or root-stocks of various plants are known in commerce under the name of arrowroot. properly the name should be restricted to the starch yielded by two or three species of _maranta_ (nat. ord. marantaceae), the chief of which is _m. arundinacea_; and when genuine or west indian arrowroot is spoken of, it is understood that this is the variety meant. _maranta arundinacea_ is probably a native of guiana and western brazil, but it has long been cultivated in the west indian islands, and has now spread to most tropical countries. the plant is a herbaceous perennial with a creeping root-stock which gives off fleshy cylindrical branches or tubers, covered with pale brown or white scales and afterwards ringed with their scars. it is at the period when these tubers are gorged with starch, immediately before the season of rest, that it is ripe for use. in addition to about 25% of starch, the tubers contain a proportion of woody tissue, vegetable albumen and various salts. the arrowroot may be separated on a small scale in the same manner as potato-starch is frequently prepared, that is, by peeling the root and grating it in water, when the starch falls to the bottom. the liquor is then drained off, and the starch purified by repeated washings till it is ready for drying. on a large scale the manufacture of arrowroot is conducted with specially arranged machinery. the rhizomes when dug up are washed free of earthy impurities and afterwards skinned. subsequently, according to pereira's _materia medica_, \"the carefully skinned tubers are washed, then ground in a mill, and the pulp washed in tinned-copper cylindrical washing-machines. the fecula (dim. of lat. _faex_, dregs, or sediment) is subsequently dried in drying-houses. in order to obtain the fecula free from impurity, pure water must be used, and great care and attention paid in every step of the process. the skinning or peeling of the tubers must be performed with great nicety, as the cuticle contains a resinous matter which imparts colour and a disagreeable flavour to the starch. german-silver palettes are used for skinning the deposited fecula, and shovels of the same metal for packing the dried fecula. the drying is effected in pans, covered with white gauze to exclude dust and insects.\" [illustration: fig. 1. fig. 2. arrowroot plant (maranta arundinacea).--fig. 1, stem, leaves and flowers; fig. 2, tubers.] arrowroot is distinguished by the granules agglomerating into small balls, by slightly crepitating when rubbed between the fingers, and by yielding with boiling water a fine, transparent, inodorous and pleasant-tasting jelly. in microscopic structure the granules present an ovoid form, marked with concentric lines very similar to potato-starch, but readily distinguished by having a \"hilum\" marking at the thick extremity of the granule, while in potato-starch the same appearance occurs at the thin end (compare figs. 3 and 4 below). in addition to the west indian supplies, arrowroot is found in the commerce of brazil, the east indies, australia, cape colony and natal. [illustration: fig. 3. fig. 4. fig. 5. fig. 6. starch granules magnified. fig. 3. potato. fig. 4. arrowroot. fig. 5. tous-les-mois. fig. 6. manihot.] the name \"arrowroot\" is derived from the use by the mexican indians of the juice of the fresh root as an application to wounds produced by poisoned arrows. sir hans sloane refers to it in his _catalogue of jamaica plants_ (1696), and it is said to have been introduced into england by william houston about 1732. it is grown as a stove-plant in botanic gardens. the slender, much-branched stem is 5 or 6 ft. high, and bears numerous leaves with long, narrow sheaths and large spreading ovate blades, and a few short-stalked white flowers. _tous-les-mois_, or tulema arrowroot, also from the west indies, is obtained from several species of _canna_, a genus allied to _maranta_, and cultivated in the same manner. the granules of _tous-les-mois_ are readily distinguishable by their very large size (fig. 5). east indian arrowroot is obtained from the root-stocks of several species of the genus _curcuma_ (nat. ord. zingiberaceae), chiefly _c. angustifolia_, a native of central india. brazilian arrowroot is the starch of the cassava plant, a species of manihot (fig. 6), which when agglutinated on hot plates forms the tapioca of commerce. the cassava is cultivated in the east indian archipelago as well as in south america. _tocca_, or _otaheite_ arrowroot, is the produce of _tacca pinnatifida_, the pia plant of the south sea islands. portland arrowroot was formerly prepared on the isle of portland from the tubers of the common cuckoo-pint, _arum maculatum_. various other species of arum yield valuable food-starches in hot countries. under the name of british arrowroot the farina of potatoes is sometimes sold, and the french excel in the preparation of imitations of the more costly starches from this source. the chief use, however, of potato-farina as an edible starch is for adulterating other and more costly preparations. this falsification can readily be detected by microscopic examination, and the accompanying drawings exhibit the appearance under the microscope of the principal starches we have described. although these starches agree in chemical composition, their value as articles of diet varies considerably, owing to different degrees of digestibility and pleasantness of taste. arrowroot contains about 82% of starch, and about 1% of proteid and mineral matter. farina, or british arrowroot, at about one-twelfth the price, is just as useful and pleasant a food.",
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