{
    "system": "GoGuides Verified Text",
    "api_version": "verified-text-v1",
    "status": "ok",
    "response_type": "verified_text_record",
    "source_key": "britannica_1911",
    "source_title": "Encyclopaedia Britannica (1911)",
    "license_code": "public_domain",
    "attribution": null,
    "license_url": null,
    "chunk_id": "1911:argentina:5a5067a7ae2e",
    "title": "ARGENTINA",
    "section": null,
    "hash_alg": "sha256",
    "hash_sha256": "ceb8915014f17157f619625b6f2db238501c3b88a14fb51437d78b68f956c669",
    "normalizer": {
        "name": "ggnorm",
        "version": "1.0"
    },
    "verified_text": "argentina, or the argentine republic (officially, _republica argentina_), a country occupying the greater part of the southern extremity of south america. it is of wedge shape, extending from 21 deg. 55' s. to the most southerly point of the island of tierra del fuego in 55 deg. 2' 30\" s., while its extremes of longitude are 53 deg. 40' on the brazilian frontier and 73 deg. 17' 30\" w. on the chilean frontier. its length from north to south is 2285 statute miles, and its greatest width about 930 m. it is the second largest political division of the continent, having an area of 1,083,596 sq. m. (gotha measurement). it is bounded n. by bolivia and paraguay, e. by paraguay, brazil, uruguay and the atlantic, w. by chile, and s. by the converging lines of the atlantic and chile. _boundaries._--at different times argentina has been engaged in disputes over boundary lines with every one of her neighbours, that with chile being only settled in 1902. beginning at the estuary of the rio de la plata, the boundary line ascends the uruguay river, on the eastern side of the strategically important island of martin garcia, to the mouth of the pequiry, thence under the award of president grover cleveland in 1894 up that small river to its source and in a direct line to the source of the santo antonio, a small tributary of the iguassu, thence down the santo antonio and iguassu to the upper parana, which forms the southern boundary of paraguay. from the confluence of the upper parana and paraguay the line ascends the latter to the mouth of the pilcomayo, which river, under the award of president r.b. hayes in 1878, forms the boundary between argentina and paraguay from the paraguay river north-west to the bolivian frontier. in accordance with the argentine-bolivian treaty of 1889 the boundary line between these republics continues up the pilcomayo to the 22nd parallel, thence west to the tarija river, which it follows down to the bermejo, thence up the latter to its source, and westerly through the quiaca ravine and across to a point on the san juan river opposite esmoraca. from this point it ascends the san juan south and west to the cerro de granadas, and thence south-west to cerro incahuasi and cerro zapalegui on the chilean frontier. the boundary with chile, extending across more than 32 deg. lat., had been the cause of disputes for many years, which at times led to costly preparations for war. the debts of the two nations resulted largely from this one cause. in 1881 a treaty was signed which provided that the boundary line should follow the highest crests of the andes forming the watershed as far south as the 52nd parallel, thence east to the 70th meridian and south-east to cape dungeness at the eastern entrance to the straits of magellan. crossing the straits the line should follow the meridian of 68 deg. 44', south to beagle channel, and thence east to the atlantic, giving argentina the eastern part of the tierra del fuego and staten island. by this agreement argentina was confirmed in the possession of the greater part of patagonia, while chile gained control of the straits of magellan, much adjacent territory on the north, the larger part of tierra del fuego and all the neighbouring islands south and west. when the attempt was made to mark this boundary the commissioners were unable to agree on a line across the puna de atacama in the north, where parallel ranges enclosing a high arid plateau without any clearly defined drainage to the atlantic or pacific, gave an opportunity for conflicting claims. in the south the broken character of the cordillera, pierced in places by large rivers flowing into the pacific and having their upper drainage basins on the eastern side of the line of highest crests, gave rise to unforeseen and very difficult questions. finally, under a convention of the 17th of april 1896, these conflicting claims were submitted to arbitration. in 1899 a mixed commission with hon. w.i. buchanan, united states minister at buenos aires, serving as arbitrator, reached a decision on the atacama line north of 26 deg. 52' 45\" s. lat., which was a compromise though it gave the greater part of the territory to argentina. the line starts at the intersection of the 23rd parallel with the 67th meridian and runs south-westerly and southerly to the mountain and volcano summits of rincon, socompa, llullaillaco, azufre, aguas blancas and sierra nevada, thence to the initial point of the british award. (see _geogr. jour._, 1899, xiv. 322-323.) the line south of 26 deg. 52' 45\" s. lat. had been located by the commissioners of the two republics with the exception of four sections. these were referred to the arbitration of queen victoria, and, after a careful survey under the direction of sir thomas h. holdich, the award was rendered by king edward vii. in 1902. (see _geogr. jour._, 1903, xxi. 45-50.) in the first section the line starts from a pillar erected in the san francisco pass, about 26 deg. 50' s. lat., and follows the water-parting southward to the highest peak of the tres cruces mountains in 27 deg. 0' 45\" s. lat., 68 deg. 49' 5\" w. long. in the second, the line runs from 40 deg. 2' s. lat., 71 deg. 40' 36\" w. long., along the water-parting to the southern termination of the cerro perihueico in the valley of the huahum river, thence across that river, 71 deg. 40' 36\" w. long., and along the water-parting around the upper basin of the huahum to a junction with the line previously determined. in the third and longest section, the line starts from a pillar erected in the perez rosales pass, near lake nahuel-huapi, and follows the water-parting southward to the highest point of mt. tronador, and thence in a very tortuous course along local water-partings and across the chilean rivers manso, puelo, fetaleufu, palena, pico and aisen, and the lakes buenos aires, pueyrredon and san martin, to avoid the inclusion of argentine settlements within chilean territory, to the cerro fitzroy and continental water-parting north-west of lake viedma, between 49 deg. and 50 deg. s. lat. the northern half of this line does not run far from the 72nd meridian, except in 44 deg. 30' s. where it turns eastward nearly a degree to include the upper valley of the frias river in chilean territory, but south of the 49th parallel it curves westward to give argentina sole possession of lakes viedma and argentino. the fourth section, which was made particularly difficult of solution by the extension inland of the pacific coast inlets and sounds and by the chilean colonies located there, was adjusted by running the line eastward from the point of divergence in 50 deg. 50' s. lat. along the sierra baguales, thence south and south-east to the 52nd parallel, crossing several streams and following the crests of the cerro cazador. the chilean settlement of ultima esperanza (last hope), over which there had been much controversy, remains under chilean jurisdiction. _physical geography._--for purposes of surface description, argentina may be divided primarily into three great divisions--the mountainous zone and tablelands of the west, extending the full length of the republic; the great plains of the east, extending from the pilcomayo to the rio negro; and the desolate, arid steppes of patagonia. the first covers from one-third to one-fourth of the width of the country between the bolivian frontier and the rio negro, and comprises the elevated cordilleras and their plateaus, with flanking ranges and spurs toward the east. in the extreme north, extending southward from the great bolivian highlands, there are several parallel ranges, the most prominent of which are: the sierra de santa catalina, from which the detached cachi, gulumpaji and famatina ranges project southward; and the sierra de santa victoria, south of which are the zenta, aconquija, ambato and ancaste ranges. these minor ranges, excepting the zenta, are separated from the andean masses by comparatively low depressions and are usually described as distinct ranges; topographically, however, they seem to form a continuation of the ranges running southward from the santa victoria and forming the eastern rampart of the great central plateau of which the puna de atacama covers a large part. the elevated plateaus between these ranges are semi-arid and inhospitable, and are covered with extensive saline basins, which become lagoons in the wet season and morasses or dry salt-pans in the dry season. these saline basins extend down to the lower terraces of cordoba, mendoza and la pampa. flanking this great widening of the andes on the south-east are the three short parallel ranges of cordoba, belonging to another and older formation. north of them is the great saline depression, known as the \"salinas grandes,\" 643 ft. above sea-level, where it is crossed by a railway; north-east is another extensive saline basin enclosing the \"mar chiquita\" (of cordoba) and the morasses into which the waters of the rio saladillo disappear; and on the north are the more elevated plains, partly saline, of western cordoba, which separate this isolated group of mountains from the andean spurs of rioja and san luis. the eastern ranges parallel to the andes are here broken into detached extensions and spurs, which soon disappear in the elevated western pampas, and the andes contract south of aconcagua to a single range, which descends gradually to the great plains of la pampa and neuquen. the lower terrace of this great mountainous region, with elevations ranging from 1000 to 1500 ft., is in reality the western margin of the great argentine plain, and may be traced from oran (1017 ft.) near the bolivian frontier southward through tucuman (1476 ft.), frias (1129 ft.), cordoba (1279 ft.), rio cuarto (1358 ft.), paunero (1250 ft.), and thence westward and southward through still unsettled regions to the rio negro at the confluence of the neuquen and limay. the argentine part of the great la plata plain extends from the pilcomayo south to the rio negro, and from the lower terraces of the andes eastward to the uruguay and atlantic. in the north the plain is known as the gran chaco, and includes the country between the pilcomayo and salado del norte and an extensive depression immediately north of the latter river, believed to be the undisturbed bottom of the ancient pampean sea. the northern part of the gran chaco is partly wooded and swampy, and as the slope eastward is very gentle and the rivers much obstructed by sand bars, floating trees and vegetation, large areas are regularly flooded during rainy seasons. south of the bermejo the land is more elevated and drier, though large depressions covered with marshy lagoons are to be found, similar to those farther north. the forests here are heavier. still farther south and south-west there are open grassy plains and large areas covered with salt-pans. the general elevation of the chaco varies from 600 to 800 ft. above sea-level. the argentine \"mesopotamia,\" between the parana and uruguay rivers, belongs in great measure to this same region, being partly wooded, flat and swampy in the north (corrientes), but higher and undulating in the south (entre rios). the misiones territory of the extreme north-east belongs to the older highlands of brazil, is densely wooded, and has ranges of hills sometimes rising to a height of 1000 to 1300 ft. the remainder of the great argentine plain is the treeless, grassy _pampa_ (quichua for \"level spaces\"), apparently a dead level, but in reality rising gradually from the atlantic westward toward the andes. evidence of this is to be found in the altitudes of the stations on the buenos aires and pacific railway running a little north of west across the pampas to mendoza. the average elevation of buenos aires is about 65 ft.; of mercedes, 70 m. westward, 132 ft.; of junin (160 m.), 267 ft.; and of paunero (400 m.) it is 1250 ft., showing an average rise of about 3 ft. in a mile. the apparently uniform level of the pampas is much broken along its southern margin by the tandil and ventana sierras, and by ranges of hills and low mountains in the southern and western parts of the territory of la pampa. extensive depressions also are found, some of which are subject to inundations, as along the lower salado in buenos aires and along the lower courses of the colorado and negro. in the extreme west, which is as yet but slightly explored and settled, there is an extensive depressed area, largely saline in character, which drains into lakes and morasses, having no outlet to the ocean. the rainfall is under 6 in. annually, but the drainage from the eastern slopes of the andes is large enough to meet the loss from evaporation and keep these inland lakes from drying up. at an early period this depressed area drained southward to the colorado, and the bed of the old outlet can still be traced. the rivers belonging to this inland drainage system are the vermejo, san juan and desaguadero, with their affluents, and their southward flow can be traced from about 28 deg. s. lat. to the great lagoons and morasses between 36 deg. and 37 deg. s. lat. in the western part of la pampa territory. some of the principal affluents are the vinchina and jachal, or zanjon, which flow into the vermejo, the patos, which flows into the san juan, and the mendoza, tunuyan and diamante which flow into the desaguadero, all of these being andean snow-fed rivers. the desaguadero also receives the outflow of the laguna bebedero, an intensely saline lake of western san luis. the lower course of the desaguadero is known as the salado because of the brackish character of its water. another considerable river flowing into the same great morass is the atuel, which rises in the andes not far south of the diamante. (a description of the patagonian part of argentina will be found under patagonia.) _rivers and lakes._--the hydrography of argentina is of the simplest character. the three great rivers that form the la plata system--the paraguay, parana and uruguay--have their sources in the highlands of brazil and flow southward through a great continental depression, two of them forming eastern boundary lines, and one of them, the parana, flowing across the eastern part of the republic. the northern part of argentina, therefore, drains eastward from the mountains to these rivers, except where some great inland depression gives rise to a drainage having no outlet to the sea, and except, also, in the \"mesopotamia\" region, where small streams flow westward into the parana and eastward into the uruguay. the largest of the rivers through which argentina drains into the plata system are the pilcomayo, which rises in bolivia and flows south-east along the argentine frontier for about 400 m.; the bermejo, which rises on the northern frontier and flows south-east into the paraguay; and the salado del norte (called rio del jura-mento in its upper course), which rises on the high mountain slopes of western salta and flows south-east into the parana. another river of this class is the carcaranal, about 300 m. long, formed by the confluence of the tercero and cuarto, whose sources are in the sierra de cordoba; it flows eastward across the pampas, and discharges into the parana at gaboto, about 40 m. above rosario. other small rivers rising in the cordoba sierras are the primero and segundo, which flow into the lagoons of north-east cordoba, and the quinto, which flows south-easterly into the lagoons and morasses of southern cordoba. the lujan rises near mercedes, province of buenos aires, is about 150 m. long, and flows north-easterly into the parana delta. many smaller streams discharge into the paraguay and parana from the west, some of them wholly dependent upon the rains, and drying up during long droughts. the argentine \"mesopotamia\" is well watered by a large number of small streams flowing north and west into the parana, and east into the uruguay. the largest of these are the corrientes, feliciano and gualeguay of the western slope, and the aguapey and mirinay of the eastern. none of the tributaries of the la plata system thus far mentioned is navigable except the lower pilcomayo and bermejo for a few miles. these chaco rivers are obstructed by sand bars and snags, which could be removed only by an expenditure of money unwarranted by the present population and traffic. in the southern pampa region there are many small streams, flowing into the la plata estuary and the atlantic; most of these are unknown by name outside the republic. the largest and only important river is the salado del sud, which rises in the north-west corner of the province of buenos aires and flows south-east for a distance of 360 m. into the bay of samborombon. on the southern margin of the pampas are the colorado and negro, both large, navigable rivers flowing entirely across the republic from the andes to the atlantic. many of the rivers of argentina, as implied by their names (salado and saladillo), are saline or brackish in character, and are of slight use in the pastoral and agricultural industries of the country. the lakes of argentina are exceptionally numerous, although comparatively few are large enough to merit a name on the ordinary general map. they vary from shallow, saline lagoons in the north-western plateaus, to great, picturesque, snow-fed lakes in the andean foothills of patagonia. the province of buenos aires has more than 600 lakes, the great majority small, and some brackish. the la pampa territory also is dotted with small lakes. the bebedero, in san luis, and porongos, in cordoba, and others, are shallow, saline lakes which receive the drainage of a considerable area and have no outlet. the large saline mar chiquita, of cordoba, is fed from the sierra de cordoba and has no outlet. in the northern part of gorrientes there is a large area of swamps and shallow lagoons which are believed to be slowly drying up. _harbours._--although having a great extent of coast-line, argentina has but few really good harbours. the two most frequented by ocean-going vessels are buenos aires and ensenada (la plata), both of which have been constructed at great expense to overcome natural disadvantages. perhaps the best natural harbour of the republic is that of bahia blanca, a large bay of good depth, sheltered by islands, and 534 m. by sea south of buenos aires; here the government is building a naval station and port called puerto militar or puerto belgrano, and little dredging is needed to render the harbour accessible to the largest ocean-going vessels. about 100 m. south of bahia blanca is the sheltered bay of san bias, which may become of commercial importance, and between the 42nd and 43rd parallels are the land-locked bays of san jose and nueva (golfo nuevo)--the first as yet unused; on the latter is puerto madryn, 838 m. from buenos aires, the outlet for the welsh colony of chubut. other small harbours on the lower patagonian coast are not prominent, owing to lack of population. an occasional argentine steamer visits these ports in the interests of colonists. the beet-known among them are puerto deseado (port desire) at the mouth of the deseado river (1253 m.), santa cruz, at the mouth of the santa cruz river (1481 m.), and ushuaia, on beagle channel, tierra del fuego. north of buenos aires, on the parana river, is the port of rosario, the outlet for a rich agricultural district, ranking next to the federal capital in importance. other river ports, of less importance, are concordia on the uruguay river, san nicolas and campana on the parana river, santa fe on the salado, a few miles from the parana, the city of parana on the parana river, and gualeguay on the gualeguay river. _geology._--the pampas of argentina are generally covered by loess. the cordillera, which bounds them on the west, is formed of folded beds, while the sierras which rise in their midst, consist mainly of gneiss, granite and schist. in the western sierras, which are more or less closely attached to the main chain of the cordillera, cambrian and silurian fossils have been found at several places. these older beds are overlaid, especially in the western part of the country, by a sandstone series which contains thin seams of coal and many remains of plants. at bajo de velis, in san luis, the plants belong to the \"glossopteris flora,\" which is so widely spread in south africa, india and australia, and the beds are correlated with the karharbari series of india (permian or permo-carboni-ferous). elsewhere the plants generally indicate a higher horizon and are considered to correspond with the rhaetic of europe. jurassic beds are known only in the cordillera itself, and the cretaceous beds, which occur in the west of the country, are of fresh-water origin. as far west, therefore, as the cordillera, there is no evidence that any part of the region was ever beneath the sea in mesozoic times, and the plant-remains indicate a land connexion with africa. this view is supported by neumayr's comparison of jurassic faunas throughout the world. the lower tertiary consists largely of reddish sandstones resting upon the old rocks of the cordillera and of the sierras. towards the east they lie at a lower level; but in the andes they reach a height of nearly 10,000 ft., and are strongly folded, showing that the elevation of the chain was not completed until after their deposition. the marine facies of the later tertiaries is confined to the neighbourhood of the coast, and was probably formed after the elevation of the andes; but inland, fresh-water deposits of this period are met with, especially in patagonia. contemporaneous volcanic rocks are associated with the ordovician beds and with the rhaetic sandstones in several places. during the tertiary period the great volcanoes of the andes were formed, and there were smaller eruptions in the sierras. the principal rocks are andesites, but trachytes and basalts are also common. great masses of granite, syenite and diorite were intruded at this period, and send tongues even into the andesitic tuffs. silver, gold, lead and copper ores occur in many localities. they are found chiefly in the neighbourhood of the eruptive masses of the hilly regions. (see also andes.)[1] _climate._--the great extent of argentina in latitude--about 33 deg.--and its range in altitude from sea-level westward to the permanently snow-covered peaks of the andes, give it a highly diversified climate, which is further modified by prevailing winds and mountain barriers. the temperature and rainfall are governed by conditions different from those in corresponding latitudes of the northern hemisphere. southern patagonia and tierra del fuego, for instance, although they correspond in latitude to labrador, are made habitable and an excellent sheep-grazing country by the southerly equatorial current along the continental coast. the climate, however, is colder than the corresponding latitudes of western europe, because of the prevailing westerly winds, chilled in crossing the andes. in the extreme north-west an elevated region, whose aridity is caused by the \"blanketing\" influence of the eastern andean ranges, extends southward to mendoza. the northern part of the republic, east of the mountains, is subject to the oscillatory movements of the south-east trade winds, which cause a division of the year into wet and dry seasons. farther south, in patagonia, the prevailing wind is westerly, in which case the andes again \"blanket\" an extensive region and deprive it of rain, turning it into an arid desolate steppe. below this region, where the andean barrier is low and broken, the moist westerly winds sweep over the land freely and give it a large rainfall, good pastures and a vigorous forest growth. if the republic be divided into sections by east and west lines, diversities of climate in the same latitude appear. in the extreme north a little over a degree and a half of territory lies within the torrid zone, extending from the pilcomayo about 500 m. westward to the chilean frontier; its eastern end is in the low, wooded plain of the gran chaco, where the mean annual temperature is 73 deg. f., and the annual rainfall is 63 in.; but on the arid, elevated plateau at its western extremity the temperature falls below 57 deg. f., and the rainfall has diminished to 2 in. the character of the soil changes from the alluvial lowlands of the gran chaco, covered with forests of palms and other tropical vegetation, to the sandy, saline wastes of the puna de atacama, almost barren of vegetation and overshadowed by permanently snow-crowned peaks. between the 30th and 31st parallels, a region essentially sub-tropical in character, the temperature ranges from 66 deg. on the eastern plains to 62-5 deg. in cordoba and 64 deg. f. on the higher, arid, sun-parched tablelands of san juan. the rainfall, which varies between 39 and 47 in. in entre rios, decreases to 27 in. in cordoba and 2 in. in san juan. the republic has a width of about 745 m. at this point, three-fourths of which is a comparatively level alluvial plain, and the remainder an arid plateau broken by mountain ranges. in the vicinity of buenos aires the climatic conditions vary very little from those of the pampa region; the mean annual temperature is about 63 deg. (maximum 104 deg.; minimum 32 deg.), and the annual rainfall is 34 in.; snow is rarely seen. south of the pampa region, on the 40th parallel, the mean temperature varies only slightly in the 370 m. from the mouth of the colorado to the andes, ranging from 57 deg. to 55 deg.; but the rainfall increases from 8 in. on the coast to 16 in. on the east slope of the cordillera. this section is near the northern border of the arid patagonian steppes. in tierra del fuego (lat. 53 deg. to 55 deg.), the climatic conditions are in strong contrast to those of the north. here the mean temperature is between 46 deg. and 48 deg. in summer and 36 deg. and 38 deg. in winter, rains are frequent, and snow falls every month in the year. the central and southern parts of the island and the neighbouring staten island are exceptionally rainy, the latter having 251-1/2 rainy days in the year. the precipitation of rain, snow and hail is about 55 in. [illustration: map of argentina, chile, paraguay and uruguay.] the prevailing winds through this southern region are westerly, being moist below the 52nd parallel, and dry between it and the 40th parallel. in the north and on the pampas the north wind is hot and depressing, while the south wind is cool and refreshing. the north wind usually terminates with a thunderstorm or with a _pampero_, a cold south-west wind from the andes which blows with great violence, causes a fall in temperature of 15 deg. to 20 deg., and is most frequent from june to november--the southern winter and spring. in the andean region, a dry, hot wind from the north or north-west, called the _zonda_, blows with great intensity, especially in september-october, and causes much discomfort and suffering. it is followed by a cold south wind which often lowers the temperature 25 deg. the climate of the pampas is temperate and healthy, and is admirably suited to agricultural and pastoral pursuits. its greatest defect is the cold southerly and westerly storms, which cause great losses in cattle and sheep. the patagonian coast-line and mountainous region are also healthy, having a dry and bracing climate. in the north, however, the hot lowlands are malarial and unsuited to north european settlement, while the dry, elevated plateaus are celebrated for their healthiness, those of catamarca having an excellent reputation as a sanatorium for sufferers from pulmonary and bronchial diseases. _flora._--the flora of argentina should be studied according to natural zones corresponding to the physical divisions of the country--the rich tropical and sub-tropical regions of the north, the treeless pampas of the centre, the desert steppes of the south, and the arid plateaus of the north-west. the vegetation of each region has its distinctive character, modified here and there by elevation, irrigation from mountain streams, and by the saline character of the soil. in the extreme south, where an arctic vegetation is found, the pastures are rich, and the forests, largely of the antarctic beech (_fagus antarctica_), are vigorous wherever the rainfall is heavy. the greater part of patagonia is comparatively barren and has no arboreal growth, except in the well-watered valleys of the andean foothills. the water-courses and depressions of the shingly steppts afford pasturage sufficient for the guanaco, and in places support a thorny vegetation of low growth and starved appearance. the antarctic beech and winter's bark (_drimys winteri_) are found at intervals along the andes to the northern limits of this zone. the pampas, which cover so large a part of the republic, have no native trees whatever, and no woods except the scrubby growth of the delta islands of the parana, and a fringe of low thorn-bushes along the atlantic coast south to mar chiquita and south of the tandil sierra, which, strictly speaking, does not belong to this region. the great plains are covered with edible grasses, divided into two classes, _pasto duro_ (hard grass) and _pasto blando_, or _tierno_ (soft grass)--the former tall, coarse, nutritious and suitable for horses and cattle, and the latter tender grasses and herbs, including clovers, suitable for sheep and cattle. the so-called \"pampas-grass\" (_gynerium argenteum_) is not found at all on the dry lands, but in the wet grounds of the south and south-west. the _pasto duro_ is largely composed of the genera _stipa_ and _melica_. in the dry, saline regions of the west and north-west, where the rainfall is slight, there are large thickets of low-growing, thorny bushes, poor in foliage. the predominating species is the chanar (_gurliaca decorticans_), which produces an edible berry, and occurs from the rio negro to the northern limits of the republic. huge cacti are also characteristic of this region. on the lower slopes of the andes are found oak, beech, cedar, winter's bark, pine (_araucaria imbricata_), laurel and calden (_prosopis algarobilla_). the provinces of santa fe, cordoba and santiago del estero are only partially wooded; large areas of plains are intermingled with scrubby forests of algarrobo (_prosopis_), quebracho-blanco (_aspido-sperma quebracho_), tala (_celtis tola_, _sellowiana_, _acuminata_), acacias and other genera. in tucuman and eastern salta the same division into forests and open plains exists, but the former are of denser growth and contain walnut, cedar, laurel, tipa (_machaerium fertile_) and quebracho-colorado (_loxopterygium lorentzii_). the territories of the gran chaco, however, are covered with a characteristic tropical vegetation, in which the palm predominates, but intermingled south of the bermejo with heavy growths of algarrobo, quebracho-colorado, urunday (_astronium fraxinifolium_), lapacho (_tecoma curialis_) and palosanto (_cuayacum officinalis_), all esteemed for hardness and fineness of grain. other palms abound, such as the pindo (_cocos australis_), mbocaya (_cocos sclerocarpa_) and the yatai (_cocos yatai_), but the predominating species north of the bermejo is the caranday or brazilian wax-palm (_copernicia cerifera_), which has varied uses. the forest habit in this region is close association of species, and there are \"palmares,\" \"algarrobales,\" \"chanarales,\" &c,, and among these open pasture lands, giving to a distant landscape a park-like appearance. in the \"mesopotamia\" region the flora is similar to that of the southern chaco, but in the misiones it approximates more to that of the neighbouring brazilian highlands. among the marvellous changes wrought in argentina by the advent of european civilization, is the creation of a new flora by the introduction of useful trees and plants from every part of the world. indian corn, quinoa, mandioca, possibly the potato, cotton and various fruits, including the strawberry, were already known to the aborigines, but with the conqueror came wheat, barley, oats, flax, many kinds of vegetables, apples, peaches, apricots, pears, grapes, figs, oranges and lemons, together with alfalfa and new grasses for the plains. the australian eucalyptus is now grown in many places, and there are groves of the paradise or paraiso tree (_melia azedarach_) on the formerly treeless pampa. the cereals of europe are a source of increasing wealth to the nation, and alfalfa promises new prosperity for pastoral industries. _fauna._--the argentine fauna, like its flora, has been greatly influenced by the character and position of the pampas. whatever it may have been in remote geological periods, it is now extremely limited both in size and numbers. of the indigenous fauna, the tapir of the north and the guanaco of the west and south are the largest of the animals. the pampas were almost destitute of animal life before the horses and cattle of the spanish invaders were there turned out to graze, and the puma and jaguar never came there until the herds of european cattle attracted them. the timid viscacha (_lagostomus trichodactylus_), living in colonies, often with the burrowing owl, and digging deep under ground like the american prairie dog, was almost the only quadruped to be seen upon these immense open plains. the fox, of which several species exist, probably never ventured far into the plain, for it afforded him no shelter. immense flocks of gulls were probably attracted to it then as now by its insect life, and its lagoons and streams teemed with aquatic birds. the occupation of this region by europeans, and the introduction of horses, asses, cattle, sheep, goats and swine, have completely changed its aspect and character. on the patagonian steppes there are comparatively few species of animals. among them are the puma (_felis concolor_), a smaller variety of the jaguar (_felis onca_), the wolf, the fox, the patagonian hare (_dolichotis patagonica_) and two species of wild cat. the huge glyptodon once inhabited this region, which now possesses the smallest armadillo known, the \"quir-quincho\" or _dasypus minutus_. the guanaco (_auchenia_), which ranges from tierra del fuego to the bolivian highlands, finds comparative safety in these uninhabitable solitudes, and is still numerous. the \"nandu\" or american ostrich (_rhea americana_), inhabiting the pampas and open plains of the chaco, has in patagonia a smaller counterpart (_rhea darwinii_), which is never seen north of the rio negro. on the arid plateaus of the north-west, the guanaco and vicuna are still to be found, though less frequently, together with a smaller species of viscacha (_lagidium cuvieri_). the greatest development of the argentine fauna, however, is in the warm, wooded regions of the north and north-east, where many animals are of the same species as those in the neighbouring territories of brazil. several species of monkeys inhabit the forests from the parana to the bolivian frontier. pumas, jaguars and one or two species of wild cat are numerous, as also the argentine wolf and two of three species of fox. the coati, marten, skunk and otter (_lutra paranensis_) are widely distributed. three species of deer are common. in the chaco the tapir or anta (_tapir americanus_) still finds a safe retreat, and the peccary (_dycotyles torquatus_) ranges from cordoba north to the bolivian frontier. the capybara (_hydrochoerus capybara_) is also numerous in this region. of birds the number of species greatly exceeds that of the mammals, including the rhea of the pampas and condor of the andes, and the tiny, brilliant-hued humming-birds of the tropical north. vultures and hawks are well represented, but perhaps the most numerous of all are the parrots, of which there are six or seven species. the reptilians are represented in the parana by the jacare (_alligator sclerpos_), and on land by the \"iguana\" (_teius teguexim, podinema teguixin_), and some species of lizard. serpents are numerous, but only two are described as poisonous, the cascavel (rattlesnake) and the \"vibora de la cruz\" (_trigonocephalus alternatus_).[2] _population._--in population argentina ranks second among the republics of south america, having outstripped, during the last quarter of the 19th century, the once more populous states of colombia and peru. during the first half of the 19th century civil war and despotic government seriously restricted the natural growth of the country, but since the definite organization of the republic in 1860 and the settlement of disturbing political controversies, the population had increased rapidly. climate and a fertile soil have been important elements in this growth. according to the first national census of 1869 the population was 1,830,214. the census of 1895 increased this total to 3,954,911, exclusive of wild indians and a percentage for omissions customarily used in south american census returns. in 1904 official estimates, based on immigration and emigration returns and upon registered births and deaths, both of which are admittedly defective, showed a population increased to 5,410,028, and a small diminution in the rate of annual increase from 1895 to 1904 as compared with 1860-1895. the birth-rate is exceptionally high, largely because of the immigrant population, the greater part of which is concentrated in or near the large cities. in the rural districts of the northern provinces, the increase in population is much less than in the central provinces, the conditions of life being less favourable. according to the official returns,[3] the over-sea immigration for the forty-seven years 1857-1903 aggregated 2,872,588, while the departure of emigrants during the same period was 1,066,480, showing a net addition to the population of 1,806,108. a considerable percentage of these arrivals and departures represents seasonal labourers, who come out from europe solely for the argentine wheat harvest and should not be classed as immigrants. unfavourable political and economic conditions of a temporary character influence the emigration movement. during the years 1880-1889, when the country enjoyed exceptional prosperity, the arrivals numbered 1,020,907 and the departures only 175,038, but in 1890-1899, a period of financial depression following the extravagant celman administration, the arrivals were 928,865 and the departures 532,175. another disturbing influence has been the high protective tariffs, adopted during the closing years of the century, which increased the costs of living more rapidly than the wages for labour, and compelled thousands of immigrants to seek employment elsewhere. the influence of such legislation on unsettled immigrant labourers may be seen in the number of italians who periodically migrate from argentina to brazil, and _vice versa_, seeking to better their condition. of the immigrant arrivals for the forty-seven years given, 1,331,536 were italians, 414,973 spaniards, 170,293 french, 37,953 austrians, 35,435 british, 30,699 germans, 25,775 swiss, 19,521 belgians, and the others of diverse nationalities, so that argentina is in no danger of losing her latin character through immigration. this large influx of europeans, however, is modifying the population by reducing the indian and _mestizo_ elements to a minority, although they are still numerous in the mesopotamian, northern and north-western provinces. the language is spanish. _science and literature._--though the university of cordoba is the oldest but one in south america, it has made no conspicuous contribution to argentine literature beyond the historical works of its famous rector, gregorio funes (1749-1830). this university was founded in 1621 and the university of buenos aires in 1821, but although bonpland and some other european scientists were members of the faculty of buenos aires in its early years, neither there nor at cordoba was any marked attention given to the natural sciences until president sarmiento (official term, 1868-1874) initiated scientific instruction at the university of cordoba under the eminent german naturalist, dr hermann burmeister (1807-1892), and founded the national observatory at cordoba and placed it under the direction of the noted american astronomer, benjamin apthorp gould (1824-1896). both of these men made important contributions to science, and rendered an inestimable service to the country, not only through their publications but also through the interest they aroused in scientific research. a bureau of meteorology was afterwards created at cordoba which has rendered valuable service. dr burmeister was afterwards placed in charge of the provincial museum of buenos aires, and devoted himself to the acquisition of a collection of fossil remains, now in the la plata museum, which ranks among the best of the world. not only has scientific study advanced at the university of buenos aires, but scientific research is promoting the development of the country; examples are the geographical explorations of the andean frontier, and especially of the patagonian andes, by francisco p. moreno. in literature argentina is still under the spell of bohemianism and dilettanteism. exceptions are the admirable biographies of manuel belgrano (d. 1820) and san martin, important contributions to the history of the country and of the war of independence, by ex-president bartolome mitre (1821-1906). buenos aires has some excellent daily journals, but the tone of the press in general is sensational. the number of newspapers published is large, especially in buenos aires, where in 1902 the total, including sundry periodicals, was 183. _political divisions and towns._--the chief political divisions of the republic consist of one federal district, 14 provinces and 10 territories, the last in great part dating from the settlement of the territorial controversies with chile. for purposes of local administration the provinces are divided into departments. the names, area and population of the provinces and territories are as follows: +---------------------------+----------+----------+----------+ | | area | pop. | pop. est.| | administrative divisions. | sq. m. | 1895. | for 1904.| +---------------------------+----------+----------+----------+ | _provinces_-- | | | | | federal capital | 72 | 663,854 | 979,235 | | buenos aires | 117,778 | 921,168 |1,312,953 | | santa fe | 50,916 | 397,188 | 640,755 | | entre rios | 28,784 | 292,019 | 367,006 | | corrientes | 32,580 | 239,618 | 299,479 | | cordoba | 62,160 | 351,223 | 465,464 | | san luis | 28,535 | 81,450 | 97,458 | | santiago del estero | 39,764 | 161,502 | 186,206 | | mendoza | 56,502 | 116,136 | 159,780 | | san juan | 33,715 | 84,251 | 99,933 | | rioja | 34,546 | 69,302 | 82,099 | | catamarca | 47,531 | 90,161 | 103,082 | | tucuman | 8,926 | 215,742 | 263,079 | | salta | 62,184 | 118,015 | 136,059 | | jujuy | 18,977 | 49,713 | 55,430 | | | | | | | _territories_-- | | | | | misiones | 11,282 | 33,163 | 38,755 | | formosa | 41,402 | 4,829 | 6,094 | | chaco | 32,741 | 10,422 | 13,937 | | pampa | 56,320 | 25,914 | 52,150 | | neuquen | 42,345 | 14,517 | 18,022 | | rio negro | 75,924 | 9,241 | 18,648 | | chobut | 93,427 | 3,748 | 9,000 | | santa cruz | 109,142 | 1,058 | 1,793 | | tierra del fuego | 8,299 | 477 | 1,411 | | los andes | 21,989 | .. | 2,095 | | +----------+----------+----------+ | total |1,135,840 |3,954,911 |5,410,028 | | gotha computations of 1902| | | | | with corrections for | | | | | boundary changes. |1,083,596 | | | +---------------------------+----------+----------+----------+ the principal towns, with estimated population for 1905, are as follows: buenos aires (1,025,653), rosario (129,121), la plata (85,000), tucuman (55,000), cordoba (43.000), sante fe (33,200), mendoza (32,000), parana (27,000), salta (18,000), corrientes (18,000), chivilcoy (15,000), gualeguaychu (13,300), san nicolas (13,000), concordia (11,700), san juan (11,500), rio cuarto (10,800), san luis (10,500), barracas al sud (10,200). _communications._--the development of railways in argentina, which dates from 1857 when the construction of the buenos aires western was begun, was at first slow and hesitating, but after 1880 it went forward rapidly. official corruption and speculation have led to some unsound ventures, but in the great majority of cases the lines constructed have been beneficial and productive. the principal centres of the system are buenos aires, rosario and bahia blanca, with la plata as a secondary centre to the former, and from these the lines radiate westward and northward. the creation of a commercial port at bahia blanca and the development of the territories of la pampa, rio negro and neuquen, have given an impetus to railway construction in that region, and new lines are being extended toward the promising districts among the andean foothills. beginning with 6 m. in 1857, the railway mileage of the republic increased to 1563 m. in 1880, 5865 m. in 1890, 7752 m. in 1891, 10,304 m. in 1901, and 12,274 m. in 1906, with 1794 m. under construction. the greater development of railway construction between 1885 and 1891 was due, principally, to the dubious concessions of interest guarantees by the celman administration, and also to the fever of speculation. some of these lines resulted disastrously. the transandine line, designed to open railway communication between buenos aires and valparaiso, was so far completed early in 1909 that on the argentine side only the summit tunnel, 2 m. 127 yds. long, remained to be finished. the piercing was completed in nov. 1909, but in the meantime passengers were conveyed by road over the pass. the gauge is broken at mendoza, the buenos aires and pacific having a gauge of 5 ft. 6 in. and the transandine of one metre. tramway lines, which date from 1870, are to be found in all important towns. those of buenos aires, rosario and la plata are owned by public companies. according to the census returns of 1895, the total mileage was 496 m., representing a capital expenditure of $84,044,581 paper. electric traction was first used in buenos aires in 1897, since when nearly all the lines of that city have been reconstructed to meet its requirements, and subways are contemplated to relieve the congested street traffic of the central districts; the companies contribute 6% of their gross receipts to the municipality, besides paying $50 per annum per square on each single track in paved streets, 5 per thousand on the value of their property, and 33% of the cost of street repaving and renewals. the telegraph lines of argentina are subject to the national telegraph law of 1875, the international telegraph conventions, and special conventions with brazil and uruguay. in 1902 the total length of wires strung was 28,125 m.; in 1906 it had been increased to 34,080 m. the national lines extend from buenos aires north to la quiaca on the bolivian frontier (1180 m.), and south to cape virgenes (1926 m.), at the entrance to the straits of magellan. telegraphic communication with europe is effected by cables laid along the uruguayan and brazilian coasts, and by the brazilian land lines to connect with transatlantic cables from pernambuco. communication with the united states is effected by land lines to valparaiso, and thence by a cable along the west coast. the service is governed by the international telegraph regulations, but is subject to local inspection and interruption in times of political disorder. the postal and telegraph services are administered by the national government, and are under the immediate supervision of the minister of the interior. argentina has been a member of the postal union since 1878. owing to the great distances which must be covered, and also to the defective means of communication in sparsely settled districts, the costs of the postal service in argentina are unavoidably high in relation to the receipts. _shipping._--although argentina has an extensive coast-line, and one of the great fluvial systems of the world, the tonnage of steamers and sailing vessels flying her flag is comparatively small. in 1898 the list comprised only 1416 sailing vessels of all classes, from 10 tons up, with a total tonnage of 118,894 tons, and 222 steamships, of 36,323 tons. there has been but slight improvement since that date. there are excellent fishing grounds on the coast, but they have had no appreciable influence in developing a commerical marine. the steamships under the national flag are almost wholly engaged in the traffic between buenos aires and montevideo, the river traffic, and port services. live stock, &c. _agriculture._--in 1878 the production of wheat was insufficient for home consumption, the amount of indian corn grown barely covered local necessities, and the only market for live stock was in the slaughtering establishments, where the meat was cut into strips and cured, making the so-called \"jerked beef\" for the brazilian and cuban markets. but three years later a new economic development began. in 1881 president roca offered for public purchase by auction the lands in the south-west of the province of buenos aires, the pampa central, and the neuquen district, these lands having been rendered habitable after the campaign of 1878 against the indians. the upset (reserve) price was l80 sterling per square league of 6669 acres, and, as the lands were quickly sold, an expansion of the pastoral industry immediately ensued. the demand for animals for stock-breeding purposes sent up prices, and this acted as a stimulus to other branches of trade, so that, as peace under the roca regime seemed assured, a steady flow of immigration from italy set in. the development of the pastoral industry of argentina from that time to the end of the century was remarkable. in 1878 the number of cattle was 12,000,000; of sheep, 65,000,000; and of horses, 4,000,000; in 1899 the numbers were--cattle, 25,000,000; sheep, 89,000,000; and horses, about 4,500,000. originally the cattle were nearly all of the long-horned spanish breed and of little value for their meat, except to the saladero establishments. gradually durham, shorthorn, hereford and other stock were introduced to improve the native breeds, with results so satisfactory that now herds of three-quarters-bred cattle are to be found in all parts of the country. holstein, jersey and other well-known dairy breeds were imported for the new industries of butter- and cheese-making. not only has the breed of cattle been improved, but the system of grazing has completely altered. vast areas of land have been ploughed and sown with lucerne (alfalfa); magnificent permanent pasturage has been created where there were coarse and hard grasses in former days, and argentina has been able to add baled hay to her list of exports. in 1889 the first shipment of argentine cattle, consisting altogether of 1930 steers, was sent to england. the results of these first experiments were not encouraging, owing mainly to the poor class of animals, but the exporters persevered, and the business steadily grew in value and importance, until in 1898 the number of live cattle shipped was 359,296, which then decreased to 119,189 in 1901, because of the foot-and-mouth disease. in 1906 the export of live stock was prohibited for that reason. large quantities of frozen and preserved meat are exported, profitable prices being realized. dairy-farming is making rapid strides, and the development of sheep-farming has been remarkable. in 1878, 65,000,000 sheep yielded 230,000,000 ib weight of wool, or an average per sheep of, about 3-1/2 lb. in the season of 1899-1900 the wool exports weighed 420,000,000 ib, and averaged more than 5 lb. per sheep. the extra weight of fleece was owing to the large importation of better breeds. the export, moreover, of live sheep and of frozen mutton to europe has become an important factor in the trade of argentina. in 1892 the number of live sheep shipped for foreign ports was 40,000; in 1898 the export reached a total of 577,813, which in 1901 fell off to 25,746. in 1892 the frozen mutton exported was 25,500 tons, and this had increased in 1901 to 63,013 tons. crops. the advance made in agricultural industry also is of very great importance. in 1872 the cultivated area was about 1,430,000 acres; in 1895, 12,083,000 acres; in 1901, 17,465,973 acres. in 1899 the wheat exports exceeded 50,000,000 bushels, and the indian corn 40,000,000 bushels. the area under wheat in 1901 was 8,351,843 acres; indian corn, 3,102,140 acres; linseed, 1,512,340 acres; alfalfa, 3,088,929 acres. the farming industry is not, however, on a satisfactory basis. no national lands in accessible districts are available for the application of a homestead law, and the farmer too often has no interest in the land beyond the growing crops, a percentage of the harvest being the rent charged by the owner of the property. this system is mischievous, since, if a few, consecutive bad seasons occur, the farmer moves to some more favoured spot; while, on the other hand, a succession of good years tends to increase rents. the principal wheat and indian corn producing districts lie in the provinces of santa fe, buenos aires, cordoba and entre rios, and the average yield of wheat throughout the country is about 12 bushels to the acre. little attention is paid to methods of cultivation, and the farmer has no resources to help him if the cereal crops fail. in the andean provinces of mendoza, san juan, catamarca and rioja viticulture attracts much attention, and the area in vineyards in 1901 was 109,546 acres, only 18% of which was outside the four provinces named. wine is manufactured in large quantities, but the output is not sufficient to meet the home demand. in the provinces of tucuman, salta and jujuy the main industry is sugar growing and manufacture. in 1901 the production of sugar was 151,639 tons, of which 58,000 tons were exported. the sugar manufacture, however, is a protected and bounty-fed industry, and the 51 sugar mills in operation in 1901 are a heavy tax upon consumers and taxpayers. other products are tobacco, olives, castor-oil, peanuts, canary-seed, barley, rye, fruit and vegetables. the pastoral and agricultural industries have been hampered by fluctuations in the value of the currency, farm products being sold at a gold value for the equivalent in paper, while labourers are paid in currency. the existing system of taxation also presses heavily upon the provinces, as may be seen from the fact that the national, provincial and municipal exactions together amount to l7 per head of population, while the total value of the exports in 1898 was only l6 in round numbers. the _guia_ tax on the transport of stock from one province to another, which has been declared unconstitutional in the courts, is still enforced, and is a vexatious tax upon the stock-raiser, while the consumption, or _octroi_, tax in buenos aires and other cities is a heavy burden upon small producers. _manufactures._--manufacturing enterprise in argentina, favoured by the protection of a high tariff, made noticeable progress in the national capital during the closing years of the last century, especially in those small industries which commanded a secure market. the principal classes of products affected are foods, wearing apparel, building materials, furniture, &c., chemical products, printing and allied trades, and sundry others, such as cigars, matches, tanning, paints, &c. in some manufactures the raw material is imported partly manufactured, such as thread for weaving. the lack of coal in argentina greatly increases the difficulty and cost of maintaining these industries, and high prices of the products result. electric power generated by steam is now commonly used in buenos aires and other large cities for driving light machinery. _commerce._--the rapid development of the foreign trade of the republic since 1881 is due to settled internal conditions and to the prime necessity to the commercial world of many argentine products, such as beef, mutton, hides, wool, wheat and indian corn. efforts to hasten this development have created some serious financial and industrial crises, and have burdened the country with heavy debts and taxes. during the decade 1881-1890 great sums of european capital were invested in railways and other undertakings, encouraged by the grant of interest guarantees and by state mortgage bank loans in the form of _cedulas_, nominally secured on landed property. in 1890 the crisis came, the mortgage banks failed, credits were contracted, the value of property declined, defaults were common, imports decreased, and the losses to the country were enormous. the constant fluctuations in the value of the currency, then much depreciated, intensified the distress and complicated the situation. recovery required years, although made easier by the sound and steady development of the pastoral and agricultural industries, which were slightly affected by the crisis; and the steadily increasing volume of exports, mainly foodstuffs and other staples, saved the situation. there have been some changes in commercial methods since 1890, the retailer, and sometimes the consumer, importing direct to save intermediate commission charges. such transactions are made easy by the foreign banks established in all the large cities of the republic. the conversion law of 1899, which gave a fixed gold value to the currency (44 centavos gold for each 100 centavos paper), has had beneficial influence on commercial transactions, through the elimination of daily fluctuations in the value of the currency, and the commercial and financial situation has been steadily improved, notwithstanding heavy taxation and tariff restrictions. the import trade shows the largest totals in foodstuffs, wines and liquors, textiles and raw materials for their manufacture, wood and its manufactures, iron and its manufactures, paper and cardboard, glass and ceramic wares. the official valuation of imports, which is arbitrary and incorrect, was $164,569,884 gold in 1889, fell off to $67,207,780 in 1891, but gradually increased to $205,154,420 in 1905. the exports, which are almost wholly of agricultural and pastoral products, increased from $103,219,000 in 1891 to $322,843,841 in 1905. _government._--the present constitution of argentina dates from the 25th of september 1860. the legislative power is vested in a congress of two chambers--the senate, composed of 30 members (two from each province and two from the capital), elected by the provincial legislatures and by a special body of electors in the capital for a term of nine years; and the chamber of deputies, of 120 members (1906), elected for four years by direct vote of the people, one deputy for every 33,000 inhabitants. to the chamber of deputies exclusively belongs the initiation of all laws relating to the raising of money and the conscription of troops. it has also the exclusive right to impeach the president, vice-president, cabinet ministers, and federal judges before the senate. the executive power is exercised by the president, elected by presidential electors from each province chosen by direct vote of the people. the president and vice-president are voted for by separate tickets. the system closely resembles that followed in the united states. the president must be a native citizen of argentina, a roman catholic, not under thirty years of age, and must have an annual income of at least $2000. his term of office is six years, and neither he nor the vice-president is eligible for the next presidential term. all laws are sanctioned and promulgated by the president, who is invested with the veto power, which can be overruled only by a two-thirds vote. the president, with the advice and consent of the senate, appoints judges, diplomatic agents, governors of territories, and officers of the army and navy above the rank of colonel. all other officers and officials he appoints and promotes without the consent of the senate. the cabinet is composed of eight ministers--the heads of the government departments of the interior, foreign affairs, finance, war, marine, justice, agriculture, and public works. they are appointed by and may be removed by the president. justice is administered by a supreme federal court of five judges and an attorney-general, which is also a court of appeal, four courts of appeal, with three judges each, located in buenos aires, la plata, parana and cordoba, and by a number of inferior and local courts. each province has also its own judicial system. trial by jury is established by the constitution, but never practised. civil and criminal courts are both corrupt and dilatory. in may 1899 the minister of justice stated in the chamber of deputies that the machinery of the courts in the country was antiquated, unwieldy and incapable of performing its duties; that 50,000 cases were then waiting decision in the minor courts, and 10,000 in the federal division; and that a reconstruction of the judiciary and the judicial system had become necessary. in june 1899 he sent his project for the reorganization of the legal procedure to congress, but no action was then taken beyond referring the bill to a committee for examination and report. the proceedings are, with but few exceptions, written, and the procedure is a survival of the antiquated spanish system. under the constitution, the provinces retain all the powers not delegated to the federal government. each province has its own constitution, which must be republican in form and in harmony with that of the nation. each elects its governor, legislators and provincial functionaries of all classes, without the intervention of the federal government. each has its own judicial system, and enacts laws relating to the administration of justice, the distribution and imposition of taxes, and all matters affecting the province. all the public acts and judicial decisions of one province have full legal effect and authority in all the others. in cases of armed resistance to a provincial government, the national government exercises the right to intervene by the appointment of an interventor, who becomes the executive head of the province until order is restored. the territories are under the direct control of the national government. _army._--the military service of the republic was reorganized in 1901, and is compulsory for all citizens between the ages of 20 and 45. the army consists of: (1) the line, comprising the active and reserve, in which all citizens 20 to 28 years of age are obliged to serve; (2) the national guard, comprising citizens of 28 to 40 years; (3) the territorial guard, comprising those 40 to 45 years. conscripts of 20 years of age have to serve two years, three months each year. the active or standing army comprises 18 battalions of infantry, 12 regiments of cavalry, 8 regiments of artillery, and 4 battalions of engineers. a military school, with 125 cadets, is maintained at san martin, near the national capital, and a training school for non-commissioned officers in the capital itself. compulsory attendance of young men at national guard drills is enforced for at least two months of the year, under penalty of enforced service in the line. in 1906 the president announced that permission had been given by the german emperor for 30 argentine officers to enter the german army each year and to serve eighteen months, and also for five officers to attend the berlin military academy. the equipment of the standing army is thoroughly modern, the infantry being provided with mauser rifles and the artillery with krupp batteries. _navy._--the disputes with chile during the closing years of the 19th century led to a large increase in the navy, but in 1902 a treaty between the two countries provided for the restriction of further armaments for the next four years. the naval vessels then under construction were accordingly sold, but in 1906 both countries, influenced apparently by the action of brazil, gave large orders in europe for new vessels. at the time when further armaments were suspended, the effective strength of the argentine navy consisted of 3 ironclads, 6 first-class armoured cruisers, 2 monitors (old), 4 second-class cruisers, 2 torpedo cruisers, 3 destroyers, 3 high-sea torpedo boats, 14 river torpedo boats, 1 training ship, 5 transports, and various auxiliary vessels. two of these first-class cruisers were sold to japan. the armament included 394 guns of all calibres, 6 of which were of 250 millimetres, 4 of 240, and 12 of 200. there are about 320 officers in active service, and the total personnel ranges from 5000 to 6000 men. the service is not popular, and it is recruited by means of conscription from the national guard, the term of service being two years. these conscripts number about 2000 a year. in addition, there is a corps of coast artillery numbering 450 men, from which garrisons are drawn for the military port, zarate arsenal and naval prison. the government maintains a naval school at flores, a school of mechanics in buenos aires, an artillery school on the cruiser \"patagonia,\" and a school for torpedo practice at la plata. the naval arsenal is situated on the \"north basin\" of the buenos aires port, and the military port at bahia blanca is provided with a dry dock of the largest size, and extensive repair shops. there is also a dockyard and torpedo arsenal at la plata, an artillery depot at zarate, above buenos aires, and naval depots on the island of martin garcia and at tigre, on the lujan river. _education._--primary education is free and secular, and is compulsory for children of 6 to 14 years. in the national capital and territories it is supervised by a national council of education with the assistance of local school boards; in the 14 provinces it is under provincial control. secondary instruction is also free, but is not compulsory. it is under the control of the national government, which in 1902 maintained 10 colleges. of these colleges four are in buenos aires, one in each province, and one in conception del uruguay. for the instruction of teachers the republic has 28 normal schools, as follows: three in the national capital; one in parana, three (regional) in corrientes, san luis and catamarca; 14 for female teachers in the provincial capitals; and seven for either sex in the larger towns of the provinces of buenos aires, santa fe, cordoba and san luis. the normal schools, maintained by the state on a secular basis, were founded by president sarmiento, who engaged experienced teachers in the united states to direct them; their work is excellent; notably, their model primary schools. for higher and professional education there are two national universities at buenos aires and cordoba, and three provincial universities, at la plata, santa fe and parana, which comprise faculties of law, medicine and engineering, in addition to the usual courses in arts and science. to meet the needs of technical and industrial education there are a school of mines at san juan, a school of viticulture at mendoza, an agronomic and veterinary school at la plata, several agricultural and pastoral schools, and commercial schools in buenos aires, rosario, bahia blanca and concordia. schools of art and conservatories of music are also maintained in the large cities, where there are, besides, many private schools. secular education has been vigorously opposed by strict churchmen, and efforts have been made to maintain separate schools under church control. the national government has founded several scholarships (some in art) for study abroad. the total school population of argentina in 1900 (6 to 14 years) was 994,089, of which 45% attended school, and 13% of those not attending were able to read and write. the illiterate school population was about 41%, and of those of 15 years and over 54% were illiterate. of the whole population over 6 years, 50.5% were illiterate. _religion._--the argentine constitution recognizes the roman catholic religion as that of the state, but tolerates all others. the state controls all ecclesiastical appointments, decides on the passing or rejection of all decrees of the holy see, and provides an annual subsidy for maintenance of the churches and clergy. churches and chapels are founded and maintained by religious orders and private gift as well. at the head of the argentine hierarchy are one archbishop and five suffragan bishops, who have five seminaries for the education of the priesthood. from statistics of 1895 it appears that in each 1000 of population 991 are roman catholics, 7 protestants, and 2 jews, the jews being entirely of russian origin, sent into the republic since 1891 by the jewish colonization association under the provisions of the hirsch legacy; from 1895 to 1908 the number of jews in argentina increased from 6085 to about 30,000. _finance._--the revenue of the republic is derived mainly from customs and excise, and the largest item of expenditure is the service of the public debt. since 1891 the national budgets have been calculated in both gold and currency, and both receipts and expenditures have been carried out in this dual system. the collection of a part of the import duties in gold has served to give the government the gold it requires for certain expenditures, but it has complicated returns and accounts and increased the burden of taxation. according to a compilation of statistical returns published by dr. francisco latzina in 1901, the national revenues and expenditures for the 37 years from 1864 to 1900, inclusive, reduced to a common standard, show a total deficit for that period of $408,260,795 gold, which has been met by external and internal loans, and by a continued increase in the scope and rate of taxation. the growth of the annual budget is shown by a comparison of the following years:-- total revenue. total expenditure. 1864 $7,005,328 gold. $7,119,931 gold. 1880 19,594,306 \" 26,919,295 \" 1890 73,150,856 \" 95,363,854 \" 1900 / 62,045,458 paper. / 104,501,614 paper. \\ 37,998,704 gold. \\ 23,644,543 gold. 1905 / 63,439,000 paper. / 105,581,680 paper. \\ 43,461,324 gold. \\ 24,865,016 gold. the bane of argentine finance has been the extravagant and unscrupulous use of national credit for the promotion of schemes calculated to benefit individuals rather than the public. the large increase in military expenditures during the disputes with chile also proved a heavy burden, and in the continued strife with brazil for naval superiority this burden could not fail to be increased greatly. a very considerable percentage of argentina's population of five to six millions is hopelessly poor and unprogressive, and cannot be expected to bear its share of the burden. to meet these expenditures there are a high tariff on imported merchandise, and excise and stamp taxes of a far-reaching and often vexatious character. nothing is permitted to escape taxation, and duplicated taxes on the same thing are frequent. in argentina these burdens bear heavily upon the labouring classes, and in years of depression they send away by thousands immigrants unable to meet the high costs of living. for the year 1900 the total expenditures of the national government, 14 provincial governments, and 16 principal cities, were estimated to have been $208,811,925 paper, which is equivalent to $91,877,247 gold, or (at $5.04 per pound stg.) to l18,229,612, 10s. the population that year was estimated to be 4,794,149, from which it is seen that the annual costs of government were no less than l3, 16s. for each man, woman, and child in the republic. about 71% of this charge was on account of national expenditures, and 29% provincial and municipal expenditures. had the expenses of all the small towns and rural communities been included, the total would be in excess of $20 gold, or l4, _per capita_. in 1889 the public debt of the republic amounted to about l24,000,000, but the financial difficulties which immediately followed that year, and the continuance of excessive expenditures, forced the debt up to approximately l128,000,000 during the next ten years. in the year 1905 the outstanding and authorized debt of the republic was as follows:-- external debt (july 31, 1905): national loans l42,297,050 provincial loans and others, assumed 30,395,916 national cedulas 11,763,923 ---------- total l84,456,889 consolidated internal debt (dec. 31, 1904): gold $16,544,000 paper 79,174,400 ---------- l10,178,718 total service on funded debt, 1905, $24,375,067 gold, and $15,914,335 paper l6,225,669 floating debt l259,170 treasury bills (apr. 30, 1905) 275,220 unpaid bills, $3,332,594, paper 288,560 --------- l822,950 the paper currency forms an important part of the internal debt, and has been a fruitful source of trouble to the country. few countries have suffered more from a depreciated currency than argentina. during the era of so-called \"prosperity\" between 1881 and 1890 an enormous amount of bank notes were issued under various authorizations, especially that of the \"free banking law\" of 1887. during this period the bank-note circulation was increased to $161,700,000, and two mortgage banks--the national hypothecary bank and the provincial mortgage bank (of buenos aires)--flooded the country with $509,000,000 of _cedulas_ (hypothecary bonds). when the crash came and the national treasury was found to be without resources to meet current expenses, further issues of $110,000,000 in currency were made. the free-banking law which permitted the issue of notes by provincial banks was primarily responsible for this situation. under the provisions of this law the provinces were authorized to borrow specie abroad and deposit the same with the national government as security for their issues. these loans aggregated l27,000,000. the celman administration, in violation of the trust, then sold the specie and squandered the proceeds, leaving the provincial bank notes without guarantee and value. the national government has since assumed responsibility for all these provincial loans abroad. as on previous occasions, the great depreciation in the value of the currency has led to a repudiation of part of its nominal value. this depreciation reached its maximum in october 1891 ($460.82 paper for $100 gold), and remained between that figure and $264 during the next six years. to check these prejudicial fluctuations and to prevent too great a fall in the price of gold (to repeat a popular misconception), a conversion law was adopted on the 31st of october 1899, which provided that the outstanding circulation should be redeemed at the rate of 44 centavos gold for each 100 centavos paper, the official rate for gold being 227.27. provisions were also made for the creation of a special conversion fund in specie to guarantee the circulation, which fund reached a total of $100,000,000 in march 1906. these measures have served to give greater stability to the value of the circulating medium, and to prevent the ruinous losses caused by a constant fluctuation in value, but the rate established prevents the further appreciation of the currency. on the 18th of january 1906 the currency in circulation amounted to $502,420,485, which is more than $95 _per capita_. (a. j. l.)",
    "source_url": "https://archive.org/details/EB1911WMF",
    "observed_at": "2026-02-08 18:42:41",
    "integrity": {
        "hash_check": "match",
        "hash_scope": "full_normalized_text",
        "computed_sha256": "ceb8915014f17157f619625b6f2db238501c3b88a14fb51437d78b68f956c669"
    },
    "machine_use": {
        "read": true,
        "cite": true,
        "decision": "verified_public_domain_text"
    },
    "goguides_data_license": "https://www.goguides.com/data-license",
    "goguides_data_license_version": "2.0",
    "documentation": {
        "white_paper_url": "https://www.goguides.com/white-paper.php",
        "pdf_url": "https://www.goguides.com/whitepapers/goguides-ai-source-clearance-white-paper.pdf"
    }
}