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    "verified_text": "archilochus, greek lyric poet and writer of lampoons, was born at paros, one of the cyclades islands. the date of his birth is uncertain, but he probably flourished about 650 b.c.; according to some, about forty years earlier but certainly not before the reign of gyges (687-652), whom he mentions in a well-known fragment. his father, telesicles, who was of noble family, had conducted a colony to thasos, in obedience to the command of the delphic oracle. to this island archilochus himself, hard pressed by poverty, afterwards removed. another reason for leaving his native place was personal disappointment and indignation at the treatment he had received from lycambes, a citizen of paros, who had promised him his daughter neobule in marriage, but had afterwards withdrawn his consent. archilochus, taking advantage of the licence allowed at the feasts of demeter, poured out his wounded feelings in unmerciful satire. he accused lycambes of perjury, and his daughters of leading the most abandoned lives. such was the effect produced by his verses, that lycambes and his daughters are said to have hanged themselves. at thasos the poet passed some unhappy years; his hopes of wealth were disappointed; according to him, thasos was the meeting-place of the calamities of all hellas. the inhabitants were frequently involved in quarrels with their neighbours, and in a war against the saians--a thracian tribe--he threw away his shield and fled from the field of battle. he does not seem to have felt the disgrace very keenly, for, like alcaeus and horace, he commemorates the event in a fragment in which he congratulates himself on having saved his life, and says he can easily procure another shield. after leaving thasos, he is said to have visited sparta, but to have been at once banished from that city on account of his cowardice and the licentious character of his works (valerius maximus vi. 3, _externa_ 1). he next visited siris, in lower italy, a city of which he speaks very favourably. he then returned to his native place, and was slain in a battle against the naxians by one calondas or corax, who was cursed by the oracle for having slain a servant of the muses. the writings of archilochus consisted of elegies, hymns--one of which used to be sung by the victors in the olympic games (pindar, _olympia_, ix. i)--and of poems in the iambic and trochaic measures. to him certainly we owe the invention of iambic poetry and its application to the purposes of satire. the only previous measures in greek poetry had been the epic hexameter, and its offshoot the elegiac metre; but the slow measured structure of hexameter verse was utterly unsuited to express the quick, light motions of satire. archilochus made use of the iambus and the trochee, and organized them into the two forms of metre known as the iambic trimeter and the trochaic tetrameter. the trochaic metre he generally used for subjects of a serious nature; the iambic for satires. he was also the first to make use of the arrangement of verses called the epode. horace in his metres to a great extent follows archilochus (_epistles_, i. 19. 23-35). all ancient authorities unite in praising the poems of archilochus, in terms which appear exaggerated (longinus xiii. 3; dio chrysostom, _orationes_, xxxiii.; quintilian x. i. 60; cicero, _orator_, i.). his verses seem certainly to have possessed strength, flexibility, nervous vigour, and, beyond everything else, impetuous vehemence and energy. horace (_ars poetica_, 79) speaks of the \"rage\" of archilochus, and hadrian calls his verses \"raging iambics.\" by his countrymen he was reverenced as the equal of homer, and statues of these two poets were dedicated on the same day. his poems were written in the old ionic dialect. fragments in bergk, _poetae lyrici graeci_; liebel, _archilochi reliquiae_ (1818); a. hauvette-besnault, _archiloque, sa vie et ses poesies_ (1905). archimandrite (from gr. [greek: archon], a ruler, and [greek: mandra], a fold or monastery), a title in the greek church applied to a superior abbot, who has the supervision of several abbots and monasteries, or to the abbot of some specially great and important monastery, the title for an ordinary abbot being hegumenos. the title occurs for the first time in a letter to epiphanius, prefixed to his _panarium_ (c. 375), but the _lausiac history_ of palladius may be evidence that it was in common use in the 4th century as applied to pachomius (q.v.). in russia the bishops are commonly selected from the archimandrites. the word occurs in the _regula columbani_ (c. 7), and du cange gives a few other cases of its use in latin documents, but it never came into vogue in the west. owing to intercourse with greek and slavonic christianity, the title is sometimes to be met with in southern italy and sicily, and in hungary and poland. see the article in the _dictionnaire d'archeologie chretienne et de liturgie_. archimedes (c. 287-212 b.c.), greek mathematician and inventor, was born at syracuse, in sicily. he was the son of pheidias, an astronomer, and was on intimate terms with, if not related to, hiero, king of syracuse, and gelo his son. he studied at alexandria and doubtless met there conon of samos, whom he admired as a mathematician and cherished as a friend, and to whom he was in the habit of communicating his discoveries before publication. on his return to his native city he devoted himself to mathematical research. he himself set no value on the ingenious mechanical contrivances which made him famous, regarding them as beneath the dignity of pure science and even declining to leave any written record of them except in the case of the [greek: sphairopoiia] (_sphere-making_), as to which see below. as, however, these machines impressed the popular imagination, they naturally figure largely in the traditions about him. thus he devised for hiero engines of war which almost terrified the romans, and which protracted the siege of syracuse for three years. there is a story that he constructed a burning mirror which set the roman ships on fire when they were within a bowshot of the wall. this has been discredited because it is not mentioned by polybius, livy or plutarch; but it is probable that archimedes had constructed some such burning instrument, though the connexion of it with the destruction of the roman fleet is more than doubtful. more important, as being doubtless connected with the discovery of the principle in hydrostatics which bears his name and the foundation by him of that whole science, is the story of hiero's reference to him of the question whether a crown made for him and purporting to be of gold, did not actually contain a proportion of silver. according to one story, archimedes was puzzled till one day, as he was stepping into a bath and observed the water running over, it occurred to him that the excess of bulk occasioned by the introduction of alloy could be measured by putting the crown and an equal weight of gold separately into a vessel filled with water, and observing the difference of overflow. he was so overjoyed when this happy thought struck him that he ran home without his clothes, shouting [greek: euraeka, euraeka], \"i have found it, i have found it.\" similarly his pioneer work in mechanics is illustrated by the story of his having said [greek: dos moi pon sto kai kino taen gaen] (or as another version has it, in his dialect, [greek: pa bo kai kino tan gan]), \"give me a place to stand and i (will) move the earth.\" hiero asked him to give an illustration of his contention that a very great weight could be moved by a very small force. he is said to have fixed on a large and fully laden ship and to have used a mechanical device by which hiero was enabled to move it by himself: but accounts differ as to the particular mechanical powers employed. the water-screw which he invented (see below) was probably devised in egypt for the purpose of irrigating fields. archimedes died at the capture of syracuse by marcellus, 212 b.c. in the general massacre which followed the fall of the city, archimedes, while engaged in drawing a mathematical figure on the sand, was run through the body by a roman soldier. no blame attaches to the roman general, marcellus, since he had given orders to his men to spare the house and person of the sage; and in the midst of his triumph he lamented the death of so illustrious a person, directed an honourable burial to be given him, and befriended his surviving relatives. in accordance with the expressed desire of the philosopher, his tomb was marked by the figure of a sphere inscribed in a cylinder, the discovery of the relation between the volumes of a sphere and its circumscribing cylinder being regarded by him as his most valuable achievement. when cicero was quaestor in sicily (75 b.c.), he found the tomb of archimedes, near the agrigentine gate, overgrown with thorns and briers. \"thus,\" says cicero (_tusc. disp._, v. c. 23, s 64), \"would this most famous and once most learned city of greece have remained a stranger to the tomb of one of its most ingenious citizens, had it not been discovered by a man of arpinum.\" _works._--the range and importance of the scientific labours of archimedes will be best understood from a brief account of those writings which have come down to us; and it need only be added that his greatest work was in geometry, where he so extended the method of _exhaustion_ as originated by eudoxus, and followed by euclid, that it became in his hands, though purely geometrical in form, actually equivalent in several cases to _integration_, as expounded in the first chapters of our text-books on the integral calculus. this remark applies to the finding of the area of a parabolic segment (mechanical solution) and of a spiral, the surface and volume of a sphere and of a segment thereof, and the volume of any segments of the solids of revolution of the second degree. the extant treatises are as follows:-- (1) _on the sphere and cylinder_ (greek: peri sphairas kai kylindron]). this treatise is in two books, dedicated to dositheus, and deals with the dimensions of spheres, cones, \"solid rhombi\" and cylinders, all demonstrated in a strictly geometrical method. the first book contains forty-four propositions, and those in which the most important results are finally obtained are: 13 (surface of right cylinder), 14, 15 (surface of right cone), 33 (surface of sphere), 34 (volume of sphere and its relation to that of circumscribing cylinder), 42, 43 (surface of segment of sphere), 44 (volume of sector of sphere). the second book is in nine propositions, eight of which deal with segments of spheres and include the problems of cutting a given sphere by a plane so that (a) the surfaces, (b) the volumes, of the segments are in a given ratio (props. 3, 4), and of constructing a segment of a sphere similar to one given segment and having (a) its volume, (b) its surface, equal to that of another (5, 6). (2) _the measurement of the circle_ ([greek: kuklou metraesis]) is a short book of three propositions, the main result being obtained in prop. 2, which shows that the circumference of a circle is less than 3-1/7 and greater than 3-10/71 times its diameter. inscribing in and circumscribing about a circle two polygons, each of ninety-six sides, and assuming that the perimeter of the circle lay between those of the polygons, he obtained the limits he has assigned by sheer calculation, starting from two close approximations to the value of [root]3, which he assumes as known (265/153 < [root]3 < 1351/780). (3) _on conoids and spheroids_ ([greek: peri konoeideon kai sphairoeideon]) is a treatise in thirty-two propositions, on the solids generated by the revolution of the conic sections about their axes, the main results being the comparisons of the volume of any segment cut off by a plane with that of a cone having the same base and axis (props. 21, 22 for the paraboloid, 25, 26 for the hyperboloid, and 27-32 for the spheroid). (4) _on spirals_ ([greek: peri helikon]) is a book of twenty-eight propositions. propositions 1-11 are preliminary, 13-20 contain tangential properties of the curve now known as the spiral of archimedes, and 21-28 show how to express the area included between any portion of the curve and the radii vectores to its extremities. (5) _on the equilibrium of planes or centres of gravity of planes_ ([greek: peri hepipedon isorropion ae kentra baron hepipedon]). this consists of two books, and may be called the foundation of theoretical mechanics, for the previous contributions of aristotle were comparatively vague and unscientific. in the first book there are fifteen propositions, with seven postulates; and demonstrations are given, much the same as those still employed, of the centres of gravity (1) of any two weights, (2) of any parallelogram, (3) of any triangle, (4) of any trapezium. the second book in ten propositions is devoted to the finding the centres of gravity (1) of a parabolic segment, (2) of the area included between any two parallel chords and the portions of the curve intercepted by them. (6) _the quadrature of the parabola_ ([greek: tetragonisaeos parabolaes]) is a book in twenty-four propositions, containing two demonstrations that the area of any segment of a parabola is 4/3 of the triangle which has the same base as the segment and equal height. the first (a mechanical proof) begins, after some preliminary propositions on the parabola, in prop. 6, ending with an integration in prop. 16. the second (a geometrical proof) is expounded in props. 17-24. (7) _on floating bodies_ ([greek: peri ochoumenon]) is a treatise in two books, the first of which establishes the general principles of hydrostatics, and the second discusses with the greatest completeness the positions of rest and stability of a right segment of a paraboloid of revolution floating in a fluid. (8) the _psammites_ ([greek: psammitaes], lat. _arenarius_, or sand reckoner), a small treatise, addressed to gelo, the eldest son of hiero, expounding, as applied to reckoning the number of grains of sand that could be contained in a sphere of the size of our \"universe,\" a system of naming large numbers according to \"orders\" and \"periods\" which would enable any number to be expressed up to that which we should write with 1 followed by 80,000 ciphers! (9) _a collection of lemmas_, consisting of fifteen propositions in plane geometry. this has come down to us through a latin version of an arabic manuscript; it cannot, however, have been written by archimedes in its present form, as his name is quoted in it more than once. lastly, archimedes is credited with the famous _cattle-problem_, enunciated in the epigram edited by g.e. lessing in 1773, which purports to have been sent by archimedes to the mathematicians at alexandria in a letter to eratosthenes. of lost works by archimedes we can identify the following: (1) investigations on _polyhedra_ mentioned by pappus; (2) [greek: harchai], _principles_, a book addressed to zeuxippus and dealing with the _naming of numbers_ on the system explained in the _sand reckoner_; (3) [greek: peri zygon], _on balances or levers_; (4) [greek: kentrobarika], _on centres of gravity_; (5) [greek: katoptrika], an optical work from which theon of alexandria quotes a remark about refraction; (6) [greek: hephodion], a _method_, mentioned by suidas; (7) [greek: peri sphairopoiias], _on sphere-making_, in which archimedes explained the construction of the sphere which he made to imitate the motions of the sun, the moon and the five planets in the heavens. cicero actually saw this contrivance and describes it (_de rep._ i. c. 14, ss 21-22). bibliography.--the _editio princeps_ of the works of archimedes, with the commentary of eutocius, is that printed at basel, in 1544, in greek and latin, by hervagius. d. rivault's edition (paris, 1615) gave the enunciations in greek and the proofs in latin somewhat retouched. a latin version of them was published by isaac barrow in 1675 (london, 4to); nicolas tartaglia published in latin the treatises on _centres of gravity_, on the _quadrature of the parabola_, on the _measurement of the circle_, and on _floating bodies_, i. (venice, 1543); trojanus curtius published the two books on _floating bodies_ in 1565 after tartaglia's death; frederic commandine edited the aldine edition of 1558, 4to, which contains _circuli dimensio_, _de lineis spiralibus_, _quadratura paraboles_, _de conoidibus et spheroidibus_, and _de numero arenae_; and in 1565 the same mathematician published the two books _de iis quae vehuntur in aqua_. j. torelli's monumental edition of the works with the commentaries of eutocius, published at oxford in 1792, folio, remained the best greek text until the definitive text edited, with eutocius' commentaries, latin translation, &c., by j.l. heiberg (leipzig, 1880-1881) superseded it. the _arenarius_ and _dimensio circuli_, with eutocius' commentary on the latter, were edited by wallis with latin translation and notes in 1678 (oxford), and the _arenarius_ was also published in english by george anderson (london, 1784), with useful notes and illustrations. the first modern translation of the works is the french edition published by f. peyrard (paris, 1808, 2 vols. 8vo.). a valuable german translation with notes, by e. nizze, was published at stralsund in 1824. there is a complete edition in modern notation by t.l. heath (_the works of archimedes_, cambridge, 1897). on archimedes himself, see plutarch's _life of marcellus_. 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