AQUAVIVA

aquaviva, claudio (1542-1615), fifth general of the jesuits, the youngest son of the duke d'altri, was born at naples. he joined the jesuits at rome in 1567, and his high administrative gifts marked him out for the highest posts. he was soon nominated provincial of naples and then of rome; and during this office he offered to join the jesuit mission to england that set out under robert parsons (q.v.) in the spring of 1580. the following year, being then only thirty-seven years old, he was elected, by a large majority, general of the society in succession to mercurian, to the great surprise of gregory xiii.; but the extraordinary political ability he displayed, and the vast increase that came to the society during his long generalate, abundantly justified the votes of the electors. he, together with lainez, may be regarded as the real founder of the society as it is known to history. a born ruler, he secured all authority in his own hands, and insisted that those who prided themselves on their obedience should act up to the profession. in his first letter "on the happy increase of the society" (25th of july 1581), he treats of the necessary qualifications for superiors, and points out that government should be directed not by the maxims of human wisdom but by those of supernatural prudence. he successfully quelled a revolt among the spanish jesuits, which was supported by philip ii., and he made use in this matter of parsons. a more difficult task was the management of sixtus v., who was hostile to the society. by consummate tact and boldness aquaviva succeeded in playing the king against the pope, and sixtus against philip. for prudential reasons, he silenced mariana, whose doctrine on tyrannicide had produced deep indignation in france; and he also appears to have discountenanced the action of the french jesuits in favour of the league, and was thus able to secure solid advantages when henry iv. overcame the confederacy. to him is due the jesuit system of education in the book _ratio atque institutio studiorum_ (rome, 1586). but the dominicans denounced it to the inquisition, and it was condemned both in spain and in rome, on account of some opinions concerning the thomist doctrines of the divine physical premotion in secondary causes and predestination. the incriminated chapters were withdrawn in the edition of 1591. in the fierce disputes that arose between the jesuit theologians and the dominicans on the subject of grace, aquaviva managed, under clement viii. and paul v., to save his party from a condemnation that at one time seemed probable. he died at rome on the 31st of january 1615, leaving the society numbering 13,000 members in 550 houses and 15 provinces. the subsequent influence exercised by the jesuits, in their golden age, was largely due to the far-seeing policy of aquaviva, who is undoubtedly the greatest general that has governed the society. (e. tn.) aqueduct (lat. _aqua_, water, and _ducere_, to lead; gr. [greek: hydragogeion], [greek: hydragogion], [greek: hyponomos]), a term properly including artificial works of every kind by means of which water is conveyed from one place to another, but generally used in a more limited sense. it is, in fact, rarely employed except in cases where the work is of considerable magnitude and importance, and where the water flows naturally by gravitation. the most important purpose for which aqueducts are constructed is that of conveying pure water, from sources more or less distant, to large masses of population. aqueducts are either below ground, on the surface, or raised on walls either solid or pierced with arches; to the last the term is often confined in popular language. the choice of method naturally depends on the contour of the country. phoenician. i. _ancient aqueducts._--in egypt, babylonia and assyria--flat countries traversed by big rivers and subject to floods--water was supplied by means of open canals with large basins. in persia devices of all kinds were adopted according to the nature of the country. in relation to the achievements of greece and rome, the phoenicians are the most important among pre-classical engineers. in cyprus water was supplied to temples by rock-cut subterranean conduits carried across intervening valleys in siphons. such conduits have been found near citium, amathus, &c. (cesnola, _cyprus_, pp. 187, 341). in syria the most striking of phoenician waterworks is the well of ras-el-ain near tyre, which consisted of four strong octagonal towers through which rises to a height of 18 to 20 ft. the water from four deep artesian wells. the water thus accumulated was carried off in conduits to reservoirs near the shore, and thence in vessels or skins to the island. the aqueduct across to the island is, of course, of roman work. jerusalem. it is not possible in all cases to find a satisfactory date for the numerous conduits which have supplied jerusalem; some probably go back to the times of the kings of judah. the principal reservoir consists of the three pools of solomon which supplied the old aqueduct; the highest is about 20 ft. above the middle one and 40 above the lowest. these pools collected the water from ain saleh and other springs, and sent it to the city by two conduits. the higher of these--probably the older--was partly a rock-cut canal, partly carried on masonry; the siphon-pipe system was adopted across the lower ground near rachel's tomb, where the pipe (15 in. wide) is formed of large pierced stones embedded in rubble masonry. the lower conduit is still complete; it winds so much as to be altogether some 20 m. long. near the birket-es-sultan it passes over the valley of hinnom on nine low arches and reaches the city on the hill above the tyropeon valley. it enters the haram enclosure at the gate of the chain (bab es-silsila), outside which is a basin 84 ft. by 42 by 24 deep. it is interesting to note in the case of the underground tunnel which brought water from the virgin's fountain to the pool of siloam, that the two boring parties had no certain means of keeping the line; there is evidence that they had to make shafts to discover their position, and that ultimately the parties almost passed one another. though the direct distance is 1100 ft., the length of the conduit is over 1700 ft. perrot and chipiez incline to attribute the pools of solomon to the asmonaeans, followed by roman governors, whereas the earlier tunnels of the kedron and tyropeon valley may be punic-jewish (see also _palest. explor. fund mem._, "jerusalem," pp. 346-365). besides these conduits excavation has discovered traces of many other cisterns, tunnels and conduits of various kinds. many of them point to periods of great prosperity and engineering enterprise which gave to the city a water-supply far superior to that which exists at present. see the publications of the palestine exploration fund; a.s. murray's _handbook to syria and palestine_ (1903), pp. 63-67; perrot and chipiez, _history of art in sardinia, judaea, &c._ (eng. trans., 1890), pp. 321 ff.; other authorities quoted under jerusalem. greek the earliest attempts in europe to solve the problems of water-supply were made by the greeks, who perhaps derived their ideas from the phoenicians. it has generally been held, partly on the strength of a passage in strabo (v. 3. 8, p. 235), and partly owing to the comparative unimportance of the remains discovered, that the greek works were altogether inferior to the roman. research in the greek towns of asia minor, together with a juster appreciation of the remains as a whole, must be held to modify this view. among the earliest examples of greek work are the tunnels or _emissaria_ which drained lake copais in boeotia; these, though not strictly aqueducts, were undoubtedly the precursors of such works, consisting as they did of subterranean tunnels ([greek: hyponomoi]) with vertical shafts ([greek: phreatiai]), sixteen of which are still recognizable, the deepest being about 150 ft. they may be compared with that described by polybius as conveying water from taurus to hecatompylos, and with numerous other remains in asia minor, syria, phoenicia and palmyra. popular legend ascribed them to cadmus, just as argos referred the irrigation of its lands to danaus. they are undoubtedly of great antiquity. the insufficiency of water, supplied by natural springs and cisterns hewn in the rock, which in an early age had satisfied the small communities of greece, had become a pressing public question by the time of the tyrants, of whom polycrates of samos and peisistratus of athens were distinguished for their wisdom and enterprise in this respect. the former obtained the services of eupalinus, an engineer celebrated for the skill with which he had carried out the works for the water-supply of megara (see _athen. mittheil._ xxv., 1900, 23) under the direction of the tyrant theagenes (c. 625 b.c.). at samos the difficulty lay in a hill which rose between the town and the water source. through this hill eupalinus cut a tunnel 8 ft. broad, 8 ft. high and 4200 ft. long, building within the tunnel a channel 3 ft. broad and 11 ells deep. the water, flowing by an accurately reckoned declivity, and all along open to the fresh air, was received at the lower end by a conduit of masonry, and so led into the town, where it supplied fountains, pipes, baths, cloacae, &c., and ultimately passed into the harbour (herod, iii. 60). in athens, under the rule of the peisistratids (c. 560-510 b.c.), a similarly extensive, if less difficult, series of works was completed to bring water from the neighbouring hills to supplement the inadequate supply from the springs. from hymettus were two conduits passing under the bed of the ilissus, most of the course being cut in the rock. pentelicus, richer in water, supplied another conduit, which can still be traced from the modern village of chalandri by the air shafts built several feet above the ground, and at a distance apart of 130-160 ft.; the diameter of these shafts is 4-5 ft., and the number of them still preserved is about sixty. tributary channels conveyed into the main stream the waters of the district through which it passed. outside athens, those two conduits met in a large reservoir, from which the water was distributed by a ramification of underground channels throughout the city. these latter channels vary in form, being partly round, partly square, and generally walled with stone; the chief one is sufficiently large for two men to pass in it. the precise location of the reservoir depends on the value of dr wilhelm dorpfeld's theory as to the site of the enneacrunus of thucydides and pausanias (see athens: _topography and antiquity_). dorpfeld places it south-west of the acropolis, where there is a cistern connected with an aqueduct which passed under the theatre of dionysus and on towards the ilissus (see map under athens). others have placed it south of the olympieum in the ilissus bed. beside these works water was brought from pentelicus in an underground conduit begun by the emperor hadrian and completed by antoninus pius. this aqueduct is still in use, having been repaired in 1869. in sicily, the works by which empedocles, it is said, brought the water into the town of selinus, are no longer visible; but it is probable that, like those of syracuse, they consisted chiefly of tunnels and pipes laid under the ground. syracuse was supplied by two aqueducts, one of which the athenians destroyed (thuc. vi. 100). one was fed by an affluent (the mod. buttigliara) of the anapus (mod. anapo); it carried the water up to the top of epipolae, where the channel was open, and thence down to the city and finally into the harbour. the other also ascends to the top of epipolae, skirts the city on the north, and then proceeds along the coast. its course is marked by rectangular shafts (_spiragli_) at the bottom of which water is still visible. an example of what appears to have been the earliest form of aqueduct in greece was discovered in the island of cos beside the fountain burinna (mod. fountain of hippocrates) on mount oromedon. it consists of a bell-shaped chamber, built underground in the hill-side, to receive the water of the spring and keep it cool; a shaft from the top of the chamber supplied fresh air. from this reservoir the water was led by a subterranean channel, 114 ft. long and 6-1/2 ft. high. (j. m. m.) roman. in comparing greek and roman aqueducts, many writers have enlarged on the greatness of the latter as an example of roman contempt for natural obstacles, or even of roman ignorance of the laws of nature. now, in the first place, the romans were not unacquainted with the law that water finds its own level (see pliny, _hist. nat._ xxxi. 57, "subit altitudinem exortus sui"), and took full advantage of it in the construction of lofty fountains and the supplying of the upper floors of houses. that they built aqueducts across valleys in preference to carrying pipes underground was due simply to economy. pipes had to be made of lead which was weak, or of bronze which was expensive; and the romans were not sufficiently expert in the casting of large pipes which would stand a very great pressure to employ them for the whole course of a great aqueduct. secondly, the water was so extremely hard that it was important that the channels should be readily accessible for repair as well as for the detection of leakage.[1] moreover, as we shall see, the roman aqueducts did not, in fact, preserve a straight line regardless of the configuration of the country. a striking example is the aqueduct of nemausus (nimes), the springs of which are some 10 m. from the town, though the actual distance traversed is about 25. other devices, such as changing the level and then modifying the slope, and siphon arrangements of various kinds, were adopted (as in the aqueduct at aspendus). sextus julius frontinus, appointed _curator aquarum_ in a.d. 97, mentions in his treatise _de aquaeductibus urbis romae_ (on the aqueducts of the city of rome) nine aqueducts as being in use in his time (the lengths of the aqueducts as given here follow his measurements). these are: (1) aqua appia, which took its rise between the 6th and 7th milestones of the via collatina, and measured from its source to the porta trigemina 11 roman miles, of which all but about 300 ft. were below ground. it appears to have been the first important enterprise of the kind at rome, and was the work of the censor appius claudius caecus, from whom it derived its name. the date of its construction was 312 b.c. (2) anio vetus, constructed in 272-269 b.c. by the censor manius curius dentatus. from its source near tivoli, on the left side of the anio, it flowed some 43 m.,[2] of which only 1100 ft. was above ground. at the distance of 2 m. from rome (frontinus, i. 21), it parted into two courses, one of which led to the _horti asiniani_, and was thence distributed; while the other (_rectus ductus_) led by the temple of spes to the porta esquilina. (3) aqua marcia, reconstructed in 1869-1870 under the name of acqua pia or marcia-pia after pius ix. (though from tivoli to rome the modern aqueduct takes an entirely different course), rising on the left side of the via valeria near the 36th milestone. it traversed 61-3/4 m., of which 54-1/4 were underground, and for the remaining distance was carried partly on substructions and partly on arches. it was the work of the praetor quintus marcius rex (144-140 b.c.), not of ancus marcius, the fourth king of rome, as pliny (_n.h._ xxxi. 3) fancied, and took its name from its constructor. its waters were celebrated for their coolness and excellent quality. its volume was largely increased by augustus, who added to it the aqua augusta; and it was repaired and restored by titus, septimus severus, caracalla and diocletian. (4) aqua tepula, from its source (now known as sorgente preziosa) in the district of tusculum, to rome, was some 11 m. in length. the first portion of its course must have been almost entirely subterranean and is not now traceable. for the last 6-1/2 m. it ran on the same series of arches that carried the aqua marcia, but at a higher level. it was the work of the censors cn. servilius caepio and l. cassius longinus, and was completed in the year 125 b.c. its water is warm (about 63 deg. fahr.) and not of the best quality. (5) the aqua julia, from a source 2 m. from that of the tepula, joined its course at the 10th milestone of the via latina. the combined stream, after a distance of 4 m., was received in a reservoir, and then once more divided into two channels. the entire length of the julia was 15-1/2 m. it was constructed in the year 33 b.c. by m. vipsanius agrippa, who also built the (6) aqua virgo which, from its origin at a copious spring in a marsh on the via collatina, measured 14 m. in length; it was conveyed in a channel, partly under and partly above ground. it was begun in the year 33 b.c. and was celebrated for the excellence of its waters. it was restored to use by pius v. in 1570. (7) aqua alsietina or augusta, the source of which is the lacus alsietinus (mod. lago di martignano), to the north of rome, was over 22 m. in length, of which 358 paces were on arches. it was the work of augustus, probably with the object of furnishing water for his _naumachia_ (a basin for sham sea-fights), and not for drinking purposes. its course is unknown, as no remains of it exist, but an inscription relating to it is given in _notizie d. scant_ (1887), p. 182. (8, 9) the aqua claudia and anio novus were two aqueducts begun by caligula in a.d. 38 and completed by claudius in a.d. 52. the springs of the former belonged to the same group as those of the marcia, and were situated near the 38th milestone of the via sublacensis, not far from its divergence from the via valeria, while the original intake of the latter from the river anio was 4 m. farther along the same road. as the water was thick it was collected in a purifying tank, and 4 m. below, a branch stream, the rivus herculaneus, was added to it. according to frontinus, over 10 m. of the course of the claudia and nearly 9-1/2 of that of the anio novus were above ground. seven miles out of rome they united and ran from that point into rome, following a natural isthmus formed by a lava stream from the alban volcano, upon a line of arches, which still forms one of the most conspicuous features of the campagna. the original inscription of claudius (a.d. 52) on the porta maggiore, by which the aqua claudia and anio novus crossed the via praenestina and the via labicana, gives the length of the aqua claudia as 45 m., and that of the anio novus as 62 m. frontinus, on the other hand, gives 46.406 m. (i.e. about 43 english miles) and 58.700 m. (i.e. about 54 english miles). albertini (_melanges de l'ecole francaise_, 1906, 305) explains the difference as due to the fact that frontinus was calculating the length of the claudia from the farthest spring, the fons albudinus, and that of the anio novus from the new intake constructed by trajan in one of the three lakes constructed by nero for the adornment of his villa above subiaco. two other inscriptions on the porta maggiore record restorations by vespasian in a.d. 70, and by titus in a.d. 80. that the aqueducts should be spoken of as _vetustate dilapsi_ so soon after their construction is not a little surprising, and may be attributed either to hasty construction in order to complete them by a fixed date, or to jobbery by the imperial freedmen who under claudius were especially powerful, or to the fact that a line of arches intended originally in all probability for the aqua claudia alone was made to carry the anio novus as well. the size of the channels (_specus_) of the principal aqueducts varies considerably at different points of their course. the anio novus has the largest of them all, measuring 3 to 4 ft. wide and 9 ft. high to the top of the roof, which is pointed. they are lined with hard cement (_opus signinum_) containing fragments of broken brick. those aqueducts of which the most conspicuous remains exist in the neighbourhood of rome are the four from the upper valley of the anio, the two which took their supply and their name from the river itself, and the marcia and the claudia, which originated from the same group of springs, in the floor of the anio valley 6 m. below subiaco. those of the anio vetus, which travelled at a considerably lower level than the other three, are the least conspicuous, while the claudia and anio novus as a rule kept close together, the latter at the highest level of all. the ruins of bridges and substructions in the anio valley down to tivoli, though comparatively little known, are of great importance. in all the aqueducts the original construction of the bridges was in _opus quadratum_ (masonry), while the substructions are in brick-faced concrete; but the bridges are as a rule strengthened (and often several times) with reinforcing walls of concrete faced with _opus reticulatum_ or brickwork. below tivoli, where the anio leaves its narrow valley, the aqueducts sweep round towards the alban hills, and pass through some very difficult country between tivoli and gallicano, alternately crossing ravines, some of which are as much as 300 ft. deep, and tunnelling through hills.[3] the engineering skill displayed is remarkable, and one wonders what instruments were employed--probably the so-called _chorobates_, an improvement upon the ordinary water-level (vitruvius viii. 6), though this would be slow and complicated. the optical properties of glass lenses were, however, unknown to the ancients, and the _dioptra_, or angle measure, was considered by vitruvius less trustworthy than the _chorobates_ for the planning of aqueducts (cf. e. hultsch, _s.v_. in pauly-wissowa, _real-encyclopadie_). the aqueducts as a rule were carried on separate bridges, though all four united at the ponte lupo, a huge structure, which after the addition of all the four, and with the inclusion of all the later strengthening walls that were found necessary in course of time, measures 105 ft. in height, 508 in length, and 46 in thickness at the bottom, without including the buttresses. from gallicano onwards the course of these four aqueducts follows the lower slopes of the alban hills. previous writers on the subject have been unable to determine their course, which is largely subterranean; but it can be followed step by step with the indications given by the presence of the calcareous deposit which was thrown out at the _putei_ or shafts (which were, as a rule, placed at intervals of 240 ft., as were the _cippi_) when the _specus_ was cleaned; and remains of bridges, though less important, owing to the less difficult character of the country, are not entirely absent (cf. the works by t. ashby cited in bibliography).[4] near the 7th milestone of the via latina at le capanelle, the aqua claudia and anio novus emerge from their underground course, and run into rome upon the long series of arches already mentioned, passing over the porta maggiore. the claudia sent off an important branch from the porta maggiore over the caclian to the palatine, but the main aqueduct soon reached its termination. a mile farther on the aqua marcia also, owing to the gradual slope of the ground towards rome, begins to be supported on arches, which were also used to carry the aqua tepula and the aqua julia (of the two latter, before their junction with the marcia, no remains exist above ground, but inscribed _cippi_ of the last named and its underground channel have been found at le capanelle, and _cippi_ also close to its springs, which are a little way above grottaferrata at gli squarciarelli). the anio vetus followed the same line, but kept underground (as was natural at the early period at which it was constructed) until the immediate neighbourhood of rome, near the locality known as "ad spem veterem" (from a temple of spes, of which no remains are known) close to the porta maggiore. at this point, besides the aqueducts named, the aqua appia, as we are told by frontinus, entered the city, and received an important branch, the appia augusta. no remains of either have been discovered outside the city. the aqua alexandrina must also have entered the city here, though its channel, which lay at some depth below ground, has not been discovered. considerable remains of its brick aqueducts exist in the district between the via praenestina and the via labicana. of the two aqueducts on the right bank of the tiber, the alsietina, as we have said, has no remains at all, while those of the traiana are not of great importance. the line of the aqueducts was marked by _cippi_, inscribed (in the case of the anio vetus, marcia, tepula, julia and virgo--those of the claudia and anio novus are uninscribed, and those of the traiana are differently worded) with the name of the aqueduct, the distance from the next _cippus_ (generally 240 ft.) and the number, counting from rome (not from the springs). these boundary stones were erected in pairs, to mark off the strip of land 30 ft. in width reserved for the aqueduct, and for the road or path which generally followed it. the shafts (_putei_) often stood, but not necessarily, at the same points as the _cippi_. to these nine must be added the two following, constructed after frontinus's time: (10) aqua traiana, from springs to the north-west of the lacus sabatinus (lago di bracciano), constructed by trajan in a.d. 109, about 36-1/2 english miles in length. it was restored by paul v. in 1611, who made use of and largely transformed the remains of the ancient aqueduct; he allowed some of the inferior water of the lake to flow into the channel, and it is thus no longer used for drinking. (11) aqua