ANTIPHON

antiphon, of rhamnus in attica, the earliest of the "ten" attic orators, was born in 480 b.c. he took an active part in political affairs at athens, and, as a zealous supporter of the oligarchical party, was largely responsible for the establishment of the four hundred in 411 (see theramenes); on the restoration of the democracy he was accused of treason and condemned to death. thucydides (viii. 68) expresses a very high opinion of him. antiphon may be regarded as the founder of political oratory, but he never addressed the people himself except on the occasion of his trial. fragments of his speech then delivered in defence of his policy (called [greek: peri metastaseos]) have been edited by j. nicole (1907) from an egyptian papyrus. his chief business was that of a professional speech-writer ([greek: logographos]), for those who felt incompetent to conduct their own cases--as all disputants were obliged to do--without expert assistance. fifteen of antiphon's speeches are extant: twelve are mere school exercises on fictitious cases, divided into tetralogies, each consisting of two speeches for prosecution and defence--accusation, defence, reply, counter-reply; three refer to actual legal processes. all deal with cases of homicide ([greek: phonikai dikai]). antiphon is also said to have composed a [greek: techne] or art of rhetoric. edition, with commentary, by maetzner (1838); text by blass (1881); jebb, _attic orators_; plutarch, _vitae x. oratorum_; philostratus, _vit. sophistarum_, i. 15; van cleef, _index antiphonteus_, ithaca, n.y. (1895); see also rhetoric. antiphony (gr. [greek: anti], and [greek: phone], a voice), a species of psalmody in which the choir or congregation, being divided into two parts, sing alternately. the peculiar structure of the hebrew psalms renders it probable that the antiphonal method originated in the service of the ancient jewish church. according to the historian socrates, its introduction into christian worship was due to ignatius (died 115 a.d.), who in a vision had seen the angels singing in alternate choirs. in the latin church it was not practised until more than two centuries later, when it was introduced by ambrose, bishop of milan, who compiled an antiphonary, or collection of words suitable for antiphonal singing. the antiphonary still in use in the roman catholic church was compiled by gregory the great (590 a.d.). antipodes (gr. [greek: anti], opposed to, and [greek: podes], feet), a term applied strictly to any two peoples or places on opposite sides of the earth, so situated that a line drawn from the one to the other passes through the centre of the globe and forms a true diameter. any two places having this relation--as london and, approximately, antipodes island, near new zealand--must be distant from each other by 180 deg. of longitude, and the one must be as many degrees to the north of the equator as the other is to the south, in other words, the latitudes are numerically equal, but one is _north_ and the other _south_. noon at the one place is midnight at the other, the longest day corresponds to the shortest, and mid-winter is contemporaneous with midsummer. in the calculation of days and nights, midnight on the one side may be regarded as corresponding to the noon either of the _previous_ or of the _following_ day. if a voyager sail eastward, and thus anticipate the sun, his dating will be twelve hours in advance, while the reckoning of another who has been sailing westward will be as much in arrear. there will thus be a difference of twenty-four hours between the two when they meet. to avoid the confusion of dates which would thus arise, it is necessary to determine a meridian at which dates should be brought into agreement, i.e. a line the crossing of which would involve the changing of the name of the day either forwards, when proceeding westwards, or backwards, when proceeding eastwards. mariners have generally adopted the meridian 180 deg. from greenwich, situated in the pacific ocean, as a convenient line for co-ordinating dates. the so-called "international date line," which is, however, practically only due to american initiative, is designed to remove certain objections to the meridian of 180 deg. w., the most important of which is that groups of islands lying about this meridian differ in date by a day although only a few miles apart. several forms have been suggested; these generally agree in retaining the meridian of 180 deg. in the mid pacific, with a bend in the north in order to make the aleutian islands and alaska of the same time as america, and also in the south so as to bring certain of the south sea islands into line with australia and new zealand. antipyrine (phenyldimethyl pyrazolone) (c11h12n2o), is prepared by the condensation of phenylhydrazine with aceto-acetic ester, the resulting phenyl methyl pyrazolone being heated with methyl iodide and methyl alcohol to 100-110 deg. c.: ch3.c=n \ ch3.c-n.ch3 >n.c6h5 -> || >n.c6h5 ch2-co / hc-co phenyl methyl pyrazolone antipyrine on the large scale phenylhydrazine is dissolved in dilute sulphuric acid, the solution warmed to about 40 deg. c. and the aceto-acetic ester added. when the reaction is complete the acid is neutralized with soda, and the phenyl methyl pyrazolone extracted with ether and distilled _in vacuo_. the portion distilling at about 200 deg. c. is then methylated by means of methyl alcohol and methyl iodide at 100-110 deg. c., the excess of methyl alcohol removed and the product obtained decolorized by sulphuric acid. the residue is treated with a warm concentrated solution of soda, and the oil which separates is removed by shaking with benzene. the benzene layer on evaporation deposits the anti-pyrine as a colourless crystalline solid which melts at 113 deg. c. and is soluble in water. it is basic in character, and gives a red coloration on the addition of ferric chloride. in medicine anti-pyrine ("phenazonum") has been used as an analgesic and antipyretic. the dose is 5-20 grs., but on account of its depressant action on the heart, and the toxic effects to which it occasionally gives rise, it is now but little used. it is more safely replaced by phenacetine.